The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party insurgency was a series of coordinated insurrections for the secession of

Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...

led by the president of the

Puerto Rican Nationalist Party The Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico ( es, Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico, PNPR) is a Puerto Rican political party founded on September 17, 1922, in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Its primary goal is to work for Puerto Rico's independence. The P ...

, Don Pedro Albizu Campos, against the

United States government The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic located primarily in North America, composed of 50 states, a city within a feder ...

's rule over the

islands of Puerto Rico This is a list of islands of Puerto Rico. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has over 143 islands, keys, islets, and atolls. Only the main island of Puerto Rico () and the islands of Vieques (), and Culebra () are inhabited. Mona Island () ha ...

. The party repudiated the "Free Associated State" (''Estado Libre Asociado'') status that had been enacted in 1950 and which the Nationalists considered a continuation of

colonialism Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colony, colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose the ...

. The party organized a series of insurrections to take place in various Puerto Rican cities on October 30, 1950. The insurrections were suppressed by strong ground and air military force, including forces of the U.S. military, under the command of

Puerto Rico National Guard The Puerto Rico National Guard (PRNG) – es, Guardia Nacional de Puerto Rico– is the national guard of the U.S. Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and s ...

Major General Luis R. Esteves. In a related event, on November 1 of that year, two Nationalists from

New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...

attempted to storm the

Blair House Blair House, also known as The President's Guest House, is an official residence in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The President's Guest House has been called "the world's most exclusive hotel" because it is primarily used ...

in a failed effort to assassinate U.S. President Harry S. Truman, who supported the Puerto Rican government effort to draft a constitution that would rename the local government as a commonwealth of the United States and provide some limited local autonomy. In 1952, nearly 82% of Puerto Rican voters approved the Constitution of the ''Estado Libre Associado''. But the Nationalists considered the outcome of the vote a political farce since the referendum offered no option to vote in favor of independence or statehood, restricting the choices to only two: a continuation of the colonial status existing at that time and the proposed new commonwealth status.Juan Gonzalez, ''Harvest of Empire,'' p. 63; Penguin Books, 2001; Manuel Maldonado-Denis, ''Puerto Rico: A Socio-Historic Interpretation,'' pp.189-209; Random House, 1972; On March 1, 1954, in another armed assault, four Nationalists fired shots from the visitors' gallery in the House of Representatives of the

United States Capitol The United States Capitol, often called The Capitol or the Capitol Building, is the seat of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, which is formally known as the United States Congress. It is located on Capitol Hill ...

during a full floor debate, wounding five Congressmen, one seriously. The Nationalists were protesting what they perceived as a continuation of a colonial status in Puerto Rico.

Historical context

Spanish Colony, ''Carta de Autonomía'', US Possession

After 400 years of colonial domination under the

Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...

, Puerto Rico received sovereignty in 1898 through a ''Carta de Autonomía'' (Charter of Autonomy). This Charter of Autonomy was signed by the Spanish Prime Minister

Práxedes Mateo Sagasta Práxedes Mariano Mateo Sagasta y Escolar (21 July 1825 – 5 January 1903) was a Spanish civil engineer and politician who served as Prime Minister on eight occasions between 1870 and 1902—always in charge of the Liberal Party—as part of th ...

and ratified by the

Spanish Cortes The Cortes Generales (; en, Spanish Parliament, lit=General Courts) are the bicameral legislative chambers of Spain, consisting of the Congress of Deputies (the lower house), and the Senate (the upper house). The Congress of Deputies meets i ...

. However, at the conclusion of the

Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (cloc ...

, it was still the age of imperialism and Manifest Destiny. The

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

claimed rule over the island under the

Treaty of Paris Treaty of Paris may refer to one of many treaties signed in Paris, France: Treaties 1200s and 1300s * Treaty of Paris (1229), which ended the Albigensian Crusade * Treaty of Paris (1259), between Henry III of England and Louis IX of France * Trea ...

, and the US demanded cessions from its defeated foe, Spain. The

arose among opponents to this action, who said that, as a matter of international law, the Treaty of Paris could not empower the Spanish to give what was no longer theirs. The US administered Puerto Rico as a territory, initially with a military government. In 1901, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico,

Charles Herbert Allen Charles Herbert Allen (April 15, 1848 – April 20, 1934) was an American politician and businessman. After serving in state and federal elected positions, he was appointed as the first United States-appointed civilian governor of Puerto Rico w ...

, became the president of the largest sugar-refining company in the world, the

American Sugar Refining Company American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

, which also dominated Puerto Rico's

economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...

. This company was later renamed as the

Domino Sugar Domino Foods, Inc. (also known as DFI and formerly known as W. & F.C. Havemeyer Company, Havemeyer, Townsend & Co. Refinery, and Domino Sugar) is a privately held sugar marketing and sales company based in Yonkers, New York, United States, that ...

company. In effect, Charles Allen leveraged his

governorship A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...

of Puerto Rico into a

controlling interest A controlling interest is an ownership interest in a corporation with enough voting stock shares to prevail in any stockholders' motion. A majority of voting shares (over 50%) is always a controlling interest. When a party holds less than the major ...

over the entire Puerto Rican economy.Ribes Tovar et al., p.122–144 The federal government did not quite know how to classify Puerto Ricans at first. In 1904, the Immigration Service implemented more strict regulations that classified people from Puerto Rico as aliens who tried to enter the US, although previously they had easily migrated. In a case carried to the US Supreme Court by Isabel González in 1904, the court ruled that Puerto Ricans had the right of free travel to the US. In 1917, the US granted full US citizenship to residents of Puerto Rico; they were restricted from voting in presidential elections because they did not have the status of a state.

United States "Manifest Destiny" and the banana republics

The U.S. government supported expansion of its interests throughout Latin America. In 1912 the Cuyamel Banana company, a U.S. corporation, orchestrated the military invasion of Honduras in order to obtain hundreds of thousands of acres of Honduran land, and tax-free export of its entire banana crop.Rich Cohen. ''The Fish That Ate the Whale''. pub. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2012. pp. 14-67. By 1928 the

United Fruit The United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) was an American multinational corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas) grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899 fro ...

Company, another U.S. corporation, owned over 200,000 acres of prime Colombian farmland. When a labor strike erupted against the company in December 6 of that year, over one thousand men, women and children were shot and killed in order to "settle" the strike. This was known as the Banana Massacre. By 1930 the

United Fruit Company The United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) was an American multinational corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas) grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899 fro ...

owned over one million acres of land in Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia,

Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Co ...

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the countr ...

, Costa Rica,

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...

and

Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...

.Rich Cohen (2012). pp. 146-150. By 1940, in Honduras alone, the United Fruit Company owned 50 percent of all private land in the entire country. By 1942, the United Fruit Company owned 75 percent of all private land in Guatemala - plus most of Guatemala's roads, power stations and phone lines, the only

Pacific The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the contine ...

seaport, and every mile of railroad. By 1930, over 40 percent of all the arable land in Puerto Rico had been converted into sugar plantations, which were entirely owned by former governor Charles Allen and U.S. banking interests. These bank syndicates also owned the entire coastal railroad, and the San Juan international seaport.

Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

There had been a push to seeking independence from the United States from the earliest days of US rule. From the many groups and parties that existed in the first two decades after the Treaty of Paris, the

emerged as the main affiliation. First organized on September 17, 1922, the Nationalist Party's main objective was Puerto Rican Independence. By 1930, disagreements between Jose Coll y Cuchi and

Pedro Albizu Campos Pedro Albizu Campos (September 12, 1891Luis Fortuño Janeiro. ''Album Histórico de Ponce (1692–1963).'' p. 290. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Imprenta Fortuño. 1963. – April 21, 1965) was a Puerto Rican attorney and politician, and the leading fi ...

as to how the party should be run, led the former and his followers to abandon the party. On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party. Social unrest increased during the Great Depression, and the party became the largest independence movement in Puerto Rico. In the mid-1930s, the Nationalist movement gained support after the

Río Piedras Rio or Río is the Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese word for "river". When spoken on its own, the word often means Rio de Janeiro, a major city in Brazil. Rio or Río may also refer to: Geography Brazil * Rio de Janeiro * Rio do Sul, a ...

and the Ponce massacres; they said the US-supported government resorted to violence to maintain its colonial regime in Puerto Rico. After disappointing electoral results, the two massacres and continued strong repression by the territorial police authorities, by the mid-1930s Albizu opted against electoral participation, and advocated violent revolution.

Lead up to October 1950

From mid-1948 to mid-1950, the efforts of the US government to control the political future of Puerto Rico, denying a voice for independence, were escalated through a law signed by the US-appointed territorial governor in June 1948 and a law signed by the US president in July 1950.

Puerto Rico's Gag Law (Ley de la Mordaza)

On May 21, 1948, a bill had been introduced before the

Puerto Rican Senate The Senate of Puerto Rico ( es, Senado de Puerto Rico) is the upper house of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico, the territorial legislature of Puerto Rico. The Senate, together with the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico, control t ...

which, in the opinion of Leopoldo Figueroa, then a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, violated the civil rights of Puerto Ricans to the protection of the First Amendment of the US Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech.La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría
/ref> The Senate, which at the time was controlled by the ''Partido Popular Democrático'' ( PPD) and presided by

Luis Muñoz Marín José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898April 30, 1980) was a Puerto Rican journalist, politician, statesman and was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico, regarded as the "Architect of the Puerto Rico Commonwealth." In 1948 he ...

, approved the bill. This bill became known as the ''Ley de la Mordaza'' ( Gag Law, technically "Law 53 of 1948") when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico,

Jesús T. Piñero Jesús T. Piñero Jiménez (April 16, 1897 – November 19, 1952) was the first and only native Puerto Rican to be appointed governor of Puerto Rico by the Government of the United States. Early years Jesús Toribio Piñero Jiménez was born i ...

, signed it into law on June 10, 1948. The Gag Law made it a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the

Flag of Puerto Rico The flag of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Bandera de Puerto Rico) represents and symbolizes Puerto Rico and its people. The origins of the current flag of Puerto Rico, adopted by the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in 1952, can be traced to 1868, whe ...

, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (), or both, for each offense.

Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950

On July 3, 1950, President

Harry Truman Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. A leader of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 34th vice president from January to April 1945 under Franklin ...

signed into law the

Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 The Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 () was an Act of Congress of the 81st United States Congress. The United States Senate passed it unanimously.81st United States Congress The 81st United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from January 3, 19 ...

. The law authorized a new status for Puerto Rico, as a "Free Associated State" (''Estado Libre Asociado''). It provided for popular elections of the governor, a bicameral legislature and bill of rights, and executive functions similar to those of the states. The US was to keep control over the money, defense, customs, and any foreign treaties. The Nationalists considered this a continuation of colonialism.

Revolts and events of 1950

The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts were a repudiation of the "Free Associated State" designation of Puerto Rico - a designation they regarded as a colonial farce. They were a call for independence from US rule, demanding the recognition of the 1898 Charter of Autonomy, and Puerto Rico's international sovereignty. The revolts began on October 30, 1950, upon the orders of

, president of the Nationalist Party. Uprisings occurred in Peñuelas, Mayagüez, Naranjito,

Arecibo Arecibo (; ) is a city and municipality on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, located north of Utuado and Ciales; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta and Florida. It is about west of San Juan, th ...

and Ponce. The most notable uprisings occurred in Utuado,

Jayuya Jayuya (, ) is a town and municipality of Puerto Rico located in the mountainous center region of the island, north of Ponce; east of Utuado; and west of Ciales. Jayuya is spread over 10 barrios and Jayuya Pueblo (the downtown and administra ...

, and

San Juan, Puerto Rico San Juan (, , ; Spanish for "Saint John") is the capital city and most populous municipality in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2020 census, it is the 57th-largest city under the juri ...

. The revolts were not limited to Puerto Rico. They included a plot to assassinate the President of the United States

Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. A leader of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 34th vice president from January to April 1945 under Franklin ...

. On November 1, 1950, two Nationalists attacked the Blair House in

Washington, D.C. ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...

, where Truman was staying while renovations were being made to the White House. The last major attempt by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to draw world attention to Puerto Rico's situation occurred on March 1, 1954, when four Nationalists attacked the

United States House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives, often referred to as the House of Representatives, the U.S. House, or simply the House, is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, with the Senate being the upper chamber. Together they ...

Peñuelas Incident

The first incident of the Nationalist uprisings was an act by a police force against the rebels, in the pre-dawn hours of October 29, 1950. The Insular Police of the town of Peñuelas surrounded the house of Melitón Muñiz Santos's mother. Melitón Muñiz Santos was the president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party in the barrio Macaná, and the police were about to raid the house that Muñiz Santos was using as distribution center for weapons for the Nationalist Revolt. Without warning, the police fired on the Nationalists in the house. A firefight ensued, killing three Nationalists (Arturo Ortiz, Guillermo González Ubides, José A. Ramos) and wounding six police officers. Nationalists Meliton Muñoz Santos, Roberto Jaume Rodriguez, Estanislao Lugo Santiago, Marcelino Turell, William Gutirrez and Marcelino Berrios were arrested and accused of participating in an ambush against the local Insular Police.Nacionalism Revolucionario Puerorriqueno, por Michael Gonzalez Cruz

Arecibo Incident

Tomás López de Victoria Tomás López de Victoria (1911–????) was a political activist and the Sub-Commander of the Cadets of the Republic. These cadets were the official youth organization within the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. They were also known as the ''E ...

, Sub-Commander of the

Cadets of the Republic Cadets of the Republic, known in Spanish as Cadetes de la República, was the paramilitary wing of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party in the twentieth century. The organization was also referred to as the Liberation Army of Puerto Rico ''(Ej� ...

, led the revolt in Arecibo. He ordered Ismael Díaz Matos to attack the local police station. Díaz Matos killed four policemen before fleeing. Fellow Nationalist Hipólito Miranda Díaz was killed while he covered the escape of his comrades. Díaz Matos and his group were captured and arrested by the National Guard. Among the Cadets arrested and charged with organizing the attack were López de Victoria and Juan Jaca Hernández, Cadet Captain of Arecibo."FBI Files"; "Puerto Rico Nationalist Party"; SJ 100-3; Vol. 23; pages 104-134.
Nationalist Insurrection
/ref>

Ponce Incident

image:Troops in Jayuya.gif, 410px, The 296th Infantry Regiment of the

occupy the town of Jayuya Police Corporal Aurelio Miranda approached a car carrying some Nationalists. Fellow officers suggested they arrest them. Officer Miranda was shot dead in a gunfight between the Nationalists and the police. Antonio Alicea, Jose Miguel Alicea, Francisco Campos (Albizu Campos' nephew), Osvaldo Perez Martinez, and Ramon Pedrosa Rivera were arrested and accused of the murder of police Corporal Miranda. Raul de Jesus was accused of violation of the Insular Firearms Law.Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico-FBI files
/ref>

Mayagüez Incident

The Nationalist group of Mayagüez was one of the largest. It was divided into several units, each assigned to attack different targets. One of the groups attacked the town's police station, resulting in the death of three policemen and three bystanders. This unit joined the others in Barrio La Quinta. After local police arrived, the men escaped into the mountains and avoided further casualties by using guerrilla tactics. One of the members of these units was Nationalist cadet Irvin Flores Rodríguez, who on March 1, 1954, together with

Lolita Lebrón Lolita Lebrón (November 19, 1919 – August 1, 2010) was a Puerto Rican nationalist who was convicted of attempted murder and other crimes after carrying out an armed attack on the United States Capitol in 1954, which resulted in the wound ...

, Rafael Cancel Miranda and

Andres Figueroa Cordero Andrés Figueroa Cordero (November 29, 1924 – March 7, 1979) was a political activist, member of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and an advocate of Puerto Rican independence. On March 1, 1954, with fellow Nationalists Lolita Lebrón, Irvi ...

, attacked the members of the US House of Representatives in Washington, DC with automatic pistols.

Jayuya Uprising

The

Jayuya Uprising The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt or El Grito de Jayuya, was a Nationalist insurrection that took place on October 30, 1950, in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The insurrection, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the multiple i ...

was a revolt in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico, which occurred on October 30, 1950. The revolt, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the most notable among the various revolts which occurred that day against the island's US-supported government. In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. Under the direction of the Puerto Rico commander of the U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard, the town was attacked by US-supplied planes and artillery.Maria Rosado; ''Pedro Albizu Campos: Las Llamas de la Aurora''; pp. 352, 353; Ediciones Puerto pub.; NY Latino Journal
The town was held by the Nationalists for three days.

Utuado Uprising

The Utuado Uprising was a revolt that occurred in Utuado as part of a series of uprising. Nationalists, led by the captain of the Utuado branch of the

, attacked the police station."History of Utuado"
, Ortizal website The U.S.-backed National Guard arrived that day and ordered the nine surviving Nationalists to surrender. They were marched to the town plaza and required to remove their shoes, belts and personal belongings. Taken behind the police station, the men were machine gunned by the national guardsmen. Five men died: Heriberto Castro, Julio Colón Feliciano, Agustín Quiñones Mercado, Antonio Ramos and Antonio González. The four survivors were seriously wounded. The event became known as ''"La Masacre de Utuado"'' (The Utuado Massacre). Over the next two days, the Puerto Rican military commander used U.S.-supplied P-47 Thunderbolt fighter planes to bomb Utuado.Claridad

San Juan Nationalist revolt

The rebels also attacked the capital of Puerto Rico, San Juan, in the

San Juan Nationalist revolt The San Juan Nationalist revolt was one of many uprisings against United States Government rule which occurred in Puerto Rico on October 30, 1950 during the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts. Amongst the uprising's main objectives were an a ...

, on October 30, 1950. The San Juan uprising's main objective was to attack "La Fortaleza" (the governor's mansion) and the United States Federal Court House Building in Old San Juan. Four Nationalists died during the attempt: Raimundo Díaz Pacheco, Domingo Hiraldo Resto, Carlos Hiraldo Resto and Manuel Torres Medina.''El ataque Nacionalista a La Fortaleza''; by Pedro Aponte Vázquez; Page 2; Publisher: Publicaciones RENÉ; In the incident known as the ''Gunfight at Salon Boricua'', Vidal Santiago Díaz, Albizu Campos' barber, was attacked by 40 police officers and guardsmen. The incident happened at Santiago Díaz's barbershop, "Salon Boricua", located in the Santurce neighborhood of San Juan. The gunfight was broadcast live over the radio to the Puerto Rican public.

Naranjito Incident

José Antonio Negrón, a World War II veteran, led the revolt in Naranjito and Nationalists who attacked the police. Afterward, they retreated to the nearby mountains and formed a guerrilla group. They continued to raid several locations until November 6, when the National Guard arrived and attacked the house where the group was staying. Negrón escaped to Corozal, where he was arrested on November 10. The Nationalist Insurrection in Puerto Rico ended at Naranjito.

Truman assassination attempt

The revolt included the

Truman assassination attempt An assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S. Truman occurred on November 1, 1950. It was carried out by militant Puerto Rican pro-independence activists Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola while President Truman resided at Blair Hou ...

, a failed attempt on the life of U.S. President

, on November 1, 1950. Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, from New York, carried out the attack on Blair House, where President Harry Truman was living during renovations at the White House. In the firefight between the Nationalists and police and Secret Service officers, Torresola mortally wounded a White House Police officer, who killed him in return shooting. Collazo was wounded and stood trial; convicted, he was sentenced to death, but Truman commuted his sentence to life.

Stephen Hunter Stephen Hunter (born March 25, 1946, Kansas City, Missouri) is an American novelist, essayist, and film critic. Life and career Hunter was born in Kansas City, Missouri, and grew up in Evanston, Illinois. His father was Charles Francis Hunter, ...

and John Bainbridge, Jr., ''American Gunfight: The Plot To Kill Harry Truman - And The Shoot-Out That Stopped It''. Simon & Schuster (2005), . Truman supported the Puerto Rican effort to draft and vote on a constitution for the island's government which would establish the islands' political status. In March 1952, the people of Puerto Rico voted overwhelmingly, nearly 82%, in favor of the new constitution establishing the Commonwealth.

Outcome and continued actions in 1950s

Outcome of the 1950 revolts

The revolts resulted in many casualties: of the 28 dead, 16 were Nationalists, 7 were police officers, one a National Guardsman, and 4 were civilians. Of the 49 wounded, 23 were police officers, 6 were National Guardsmen, 9 were Nationalists, and 11 were civilians. The revolt of October 1950 failed because of the overwhelming force used by the U.S.-backed

(the 296th Regiment of the

United States National Guard The National Guard is a state-based military force that becomes part of the reserve components of the United States Army and the United States Air Force when activated for federal missions.FBI The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Justice, t ...

, the

CIA The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...

, and the Puerto Rican Insular Police, all of whom were aligned against the Nationalists.Manuel Maldonado-Denis, ''Puerto Rico: A Socio-Historic Interpretation,'' pp.151-233; Random House, 1972; Federico Ribes Tovar, ''Albizu Campos: Puerto Rican Revolutionary'', pp.105-134; Plus Ultra Educational pub., 1971Marisa Rosado, ''Pedro Albizu Campos: Las Llamas de la Aurora'', pp.347-369; Ediciones Puerto pub., 2008; Dozens of Nationalists were killed and wounded, and hundreds of others were arrested and held in prison. The U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard had also bombed the towns of

and Utuado. Critics have said that there was not sufficient coverage of the suppression of the uprisings. According to an anonymous and undated article in the ''New York Latino Journal'' in the early 2000s, it was described at the time in the mainland press as an "incident between Puerto Ricans." After the assassination attempt against him in 1950, Truman pushed for a "status referendum" and accompanying "constitution." In a March 1952 vote, nearly 82% of voters in Puerto Rico approved the constitution. Nohlen, D (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook, Volume I'', p. 556 This result was controversial, since the referendum had only offered a choice between the existing colony or commonwealth, and neither independence nor statehood were on the ballot.

1954 U.S. Capitol shooting incident

On March 1, 1954, the Nationalists attacked the House of Representatives. Four Puerto Rican Nationalists:

, Rafael Cancel Miranda,

, and Irvin Flores Rodríguez, tried to highlight problems in Puerto Rico by attacking the House of Representatives of the United States. They fired automatic pistols from the Ladies' Gallery (a balcony for visitors) in the House of Representatives. The 240 representatives were on the floor during a debate over an immigration bill. They wounded five Congressmen, one seriously, but all survived. All four attackers were tried and convicted in federal court and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. In 1978 and 1979, President Jimmy Carter commuted their sentences to time served, and the four returned to Puerto Rico.

Continued repression of independence movement

Among the factors which has affected the independence movement in Puerto Rico have been the "

COINTELPRO COINTELPRO (syllabic abbreviation derived from Counterintelligence, Counter Intelligence Program; 1956–1971) was a series of Covert operation, covert and illegal projects actively conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation ( ...

program" and the "Carpetas program." The "COINTELPRO program" was a project conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), under

J. Edgar Hoover John Edgar Hoover (January 1, 1895 – May 2, 1972) was an American law enforcement administrator who served as the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He was appointed director of the Bureau of Investigation � ...

, aimed at surveying, infiltrating, discrediting, and disrupting certain domestic

political organizations A political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, and special interest advocacy groups. Political organizations are those engaged in politi ...

, including the independence movement in Puerto Rico. The "Carpetas program" was a massive collection of information gathered by the island's police on so called "political subversives." The police had in its possession thousands of extensive files (''carpetas'') concerning individuals of all social groups and ages. Approximately 75,000 persons were listed as under political police surveillance. The massive surveillance apparatus was aimed primarily against Puerto Rico's independence movement. Thus many independence supporters moved to the Popular Democratic Party as a means to an end to stop statehood.

Notable Nationalist leaders of the 1950s

- Party president. #Alvaro Rivera Walker - Secretary to Albizu Campos. #

Juan Antonio Corretjer Juan Antonio Corretjer Montes (March 3, 1908 – January 19, 1985) was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist and pro-independence political activist opposing United States rule in Puerto Rico. Early years Corretjer (birth name: Juan Antonio C ...

- 1st Secretary General of the Nationalist Party. # Francisco Matos Paoli - 2nd Secretary General of the Nationalist Party. # Vidal Santiago Díaz - President of the Santurce Municipal Board of the PRNP. # Raimundo Díaz Pacheco - Treasurer General of the Nationalist Party, Commander of the

and leader of the San Juan Nationalist revolt. #

- Sub-Commander of the Cadets of the Republic and leader of the Arecibo Incident. #

Olga Viscal Garriga Olga Isabel Viscal Garriga (May 5, 1929 – June 1995) was a public orator and political activist. Born in Brooklyn, New York, she moved to Puerto Rico, where she was a student leader and spokesperson of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party's ...

- Student leader and spokesperson of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party's branch in

Rio Piedras Rio or Río is the Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese word for "river". When spoken on its own, the word often means Rio de Janeiro, a major city in Brazil. Rio or Río may also refer to: Geography Brazil * Rio de Janeiro * Rio do Sul, a ...

. # Blanca Canales - Jayuya Uprising leader. #Heriberto Castro - Captain of the Utuado branch of the Cadets of the Republic. #

Rosa Collazo Rosa or De Rosa may refer to: People *Rosa (given name) *Rosa (surname) *wiktionary:Santa_Rosa, Santa Rosa (female given name from Latin-a latinized variant of Rose) Places *223 Rosa, an asteroid *Rosa, Alabama, a town, United States *Rosa, Ger ...

- Treasurer of the New York branch of the Nationalist Party. #Melitón Muñiz Santos - President of the Peñuelas branch of the Nationalist Party and leader of the Peñuelas Incident. #José Antonio Negrón - Leader of the Naranjito Incident. # Carlos Vélez Rieckehoff - Leader of the

Vieques Vieques (; ), officially Isla de Vieques, is an island and municipality of Puerto Rico, in the northeastern Caribbean, part of an island grouping sometimes known as the Spanish Virgin Islands. Vieques is part of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, ...

branch of the Nationalist Party. # Hugo Margenat - Founder of ''"Acción Juventud Independentista"'' (Pro-independence Youth Action) and the ''"Federación de Universitarios Pro Independencia"'' (Federation of Pro-independence University Students). #

Ruth Mary Reynolds Ruth Mary Reynolds (February 29, 1916 – December 2, 1989) was an American educator, political and civil rights activist who embraced the ideals of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. She was incarcerated in ''La Princesa'' Prison for sedi ...

- Founder of "Americans for Puerto Rico's Independence". #Damián Torres - Led the Utuado Uprising with Heriberto Castro. Attempt against President Truman # Oscar Collazo - President of the New York branch of the Nationalist Party. # Griselio Torresola - Cousin of Blanca Canales who teamed up with Oscar Collazo in the assassination attempt. U.S. Capitol shooting incident #

- Leader of the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954. # Rafael Cancel Miranda - Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954 # Irvin Flores - Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954 #

- Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954

Photo gallery

''Mundo Abierto'' (Open World)

"''Mundo Abierto'' " (Open World) is a poem written in 1956 by Hugo Margenat, in which he refers to the bombardment of the town of Jayuya by the U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard. This occurred during the Jayuya Uprising, which was headed by Nationalist leader Blanca Canales.isla negra.

Incarcerated Nationalists

FBI list of names of the Nationalists who were incarcerated in 1950 and who were still in prison as of 1954."Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico"; FBI Files; (NPPR); SJ 100-3; Vol. 26; Pages 44-63
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