Propaganda in Imperial Japan, in the period just before and during

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...

, was designed to assist the regime in governing during that time. Many of its elements were continuous with pre-war themes of Shōwa statism, including the principles of ''

kokutai is a concept in the Japanese language translatable as " system of government", "sovereignty", "national identity, essence and character", "national polity; body politic; national entity; basis for the Emperor's sovereignty; Japanese constitu ...

, hakkō ichiu'', and '' bushido''. New forms of propaganda were developed to persuade occupied countries of the benefits of the Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, to undermine American troops' morale, to counteract claims of

Japanese atrocities The Empire of Japan committed war crimes in many Asian-Pacific countries during the period of Japanese imperialism, primarily during the Second Sino-Japanese and Pacific Wars. These incidents have been described as an "Asian Holocaust". Some w ...

, and to present the war to the Japanese people as victorious. It started with the

Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...

, which merged into World War II. It used a large variety of media to send its messages.

Nature of Japanese propaganda

Propaganda is non-

objective Objective may refer to: * Objective (optics), an element in a camera or microscope * ''The Objective'', a 2008 science fiction horror film * Objective pronoun, a personal pronoun that is used as a grammatical object * Objective Productions, a Brit ...

information intended to promote a particular political cause or view. In that sense, Japanese propaganda was no different from other nations' propaganda, but it had some defining elements, such as

nationalism Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...

. Japanese wartime propaganda was, as with Nazi Germany's propaganda, a reaction against perceived foreign cultural domination. In Japan's case, propaganda attacked Western, and particularly Anglo-Saxon, culture. The believers in this propaganda saw themselves as offering a different, distinctly Japanese, way of life from

Western imperialism Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...

. Propaganda portrayed the West, and especially the Anglo-Saxon world, as decadent and weak. However, Japanese nationalistic propaganda made it difficult for the diverse nations of Asia to feel that they belonged in the new world order Japan was offering (Japanese propaganda also promoted general

Pan-Asianism Satellite photograph of Asia in orthographic projection. Pan-Asianism (''also known as Asianism or Greater Asianism'') is an ideology aimed at creating a political and economic unity among Asian peoples. Various theories and movements of Pan-Asi ...

, but this was never implemented as thoroughly as the nationalistic elements). Because of this, Japanese propaganda was less appealing to non-Japanese than

American propaganda Propaganda in the United States is spread by both government and media entities. Propaganda is carefully curated information, ideas, or rumors deliberately spread, usually to preserve the self-interest of a nation. It is used in advertising, ra ...

, with its message of universal democracy open (in theory) to everybody. Japanese wartime propaganda was distributed through films, magazines and newspapers, radio, books, cartoons and the education system.

Films

The Film Law of 1939 decreed a "healthy development of the industry" which abolished sexually frivolous films and social issues. Instead, films were to elevate national consciousness, present the national and international situation appropriately, and otherwise aid the "public welfare." The use of propaganda in World War II was extensive and far reaching but possibly the most effective form used by the Japanese government was film.Ward, Robert Spencer (1945). ''Asia for the Asiatics?: The Techniques of Japanese Occupation''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Japanese films were produced for a far wider range of audiences than American films of the same period.
Navarro, Anthony V. "A Critical Comparison Between Japanese and American Propaganda During World War II." Retrieved 2011-02-04. From the 1920s onward, Japanese film studios produced films legitimizing the colonial project that were set in its colonies of Taiwan, Korea, and on the Chinese mainland.Baskett, Michael (2008). ''The Attractive Empire: Transnational Film Culture in Imperial Japan''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. By 1945 propaganda film production under the Japanese had expanded throughout the majority of their empire including Manchuria, Shanghai, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. In China, Japan's use of

propaganda film A propaganda film is a film that involves some form of propaganda. Propaganda films spread and promote certain ideas that are usually religious, political, or cultural in nature. A propaganda film is made with the intent that the viewer will ad ...

s was extensive. After Japan's invasion of China, movie houses were among the first establishments to be reopened. Most of the materials being shown were war news reels, Japanese motion pictures, or propaganda shorts paired with traditional Chinese films. Movies were also used in other conquered Asian countries usually with the theme of Japan as Asia's savior against the Western tyrants or spoke of the history of friendly relations between the countries with films such as, ''The Japan You Don't Know''.Desser, D. (1995). "From the opium war to the pacific war: Japanese propaganda films of world war II." ''Film History'' 7(1), 32-48.Kushner, Barak (2006). ''The Thought War: Japanese Imperial Propaganda''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. China's rich history and exotic locations made it a favorite topic of Japanese film makers for over a decade before the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). Of particular note were a popular trio of "continental goodwill films" (大陸親善映画) set throughout the Chinese continent and starring Hasegawa Kazuo as the Japanese male romantic lead with Ri Kōran (

Yoshiko Yamaguchi was a Japanese singer, actress, journalist, and politician. Born in China, she made an international career in film in China, Hong Kong, Japan and the United States. Early in her career, the Manchukuo Film Association concealed her Japanese ori ...

) as his Chinese love interest. Among these films, ''Song of the White Orchid'' (1939, 白蘭の歌), ''China Nights'' (1940, 支那の夜), and ''Vow in the Desert'' (1940, 熱砂の誓い) mixed romantic melodrama with propaganda in order to represent a figurative and literal blending of the two cultures onscreen. ‘National policy films’ or propaganda pictures used in World War II included combat films such as ''Mud and Soldiers'' (1939, 土と兵隊) and ''Five Scouts'' (1938, 五人の斥候兵), spy films such as ''The Spy isn't Dead'' (1942, 間諜未だ死せず) and ''They're After You'' (1942, あなたは狙われている) and lavish period pictures such as ''The Monkey King'' (1940, 孫悟空) and ''Genghis Khan'' (1943, 成吉斯汗). In the early stages of the war with China, so-called "Humanistic war films" such as ''The Five Scouts'' attempted to depict the war without nationalism. But with

Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the R ...

, the Home Ministry demanded more patriotism and "national polity themes" – or war themes. Japanese directors of war films set in China had to refrain from direct representations of the Chinese for ideological reasons as well. The risk of alienating the same cultures that the Japanese ostensibly were "liberating" from the yoke of Western colonial oppression was also a powerful deterrent in addition to government pressure. Even so, as the war in China worsened for Japan, action films such as ''The Tiger of Malay'' (1943, マライの虎) and espionage dramas like ''The Man From Chungking'' (1943, 重慶から来た男) more overtly criminalized Chinese as enemies of the Empire. In contrast to its representations of China as antiquated and inflexible, Western nations were often portrayed as overindulgent and decadent.Brcak, N., & Pavia, J. R. (1994). "Racism in japanese and U.S. wartime propaganda." ''Historian'' 56(4), 671. Such negative stereotypes had to be adjusted when Japanese film makers were asked to collaborate with Nazi film crews on a number of Axis co-productions that followed the conclusion of the Tripartite Pact. Much as American propagandists, Japanese film makers extensively used prejudice and xenophobia in films produced after war was formally declared on the Allied nations. In ''Fire on That Flag!'' (1944, あの旗を撃て！) the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines. Japan's first full-length animated feature film ''Momotarō: Divine Soldiers of the Sea'' (1945, 桃太郎海の神兵) similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak "devils". A sub-category of the costume picture is the samurai movie. Themes used within these films include self-sacrifice and honor to the emperor. Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering, often portraying its troops as the underdog. This had the effect of making Japan look as though it was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience. The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally. The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained. Some other examples of propaganda films include

Momotarō no Umiwashi is an animated Japanese propaganda film produced in 1942 by Geijutsu Eigasha and released March 25, 1943. Running at 37 minutes, it was close to being feature-length, but it was not the first animated feature film in Asia; that honor goes to Chi ...

and

The Most Beautiful is a 1944 Japanese drama and propaganda film written and directed by Akira Kurosawa. The semidocumentary film follows a group of female volunteer workers at an optics factory during the Second World War, during which the film was produced. Plot ...

Magazines and newspapers

Magazines supported the war from its beginnings as the Second Sino-Japanese War with stories of heroism, tales of war widows, and advice on making do.James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 427 Censorship TMPD

After the

attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii ...

control Control may refer to: Basic meanings Economics and business * Control (management), an element of management * Control, an element of management accounting * Comptroller (or controller), a senior financial officer in an organization * Controllin ...

tightened, aided by the patriotism of many reporters. Magazines were told that the cause of the war was the enemy's egoistic desire to rule the world, and ordered, under the guise of requests, to promote anti-American and anti-British sentiment. When Jun'ichirō Tanizaki began to serialize his novel '' Sasameyuki'', a nostalgic account of pre-war family life, the editors of '' Chūōkōron'' were warned it did not contribute to the needed war spirit. Despite Tanizaki's history of treating Westernization and modernization as corrupting, a "sentimental" tale of "bouregeoise family life" was not acceptable.James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 491 Fearful of losing supplies of paper, it cut off the serialization.Marius B. Jansen, ''The Making of Modern Japan'' p 643 A year later '' Chūōkōron'' and ''

Kaizō ''Kaizō'' (改造 ''kaizō'') was a Japanese general-interest magazine that started publication during the Taishō period and printed many articles of socialist content. ''Kaizō'' can be translated into English as "Reorganize", "Restructure" ...

'' were forced to "voluntarily" dissolve after police beat confessions out of "Communist" staffers. Newspapers added columnists to whip up martial fervor. Magazines were ordered to print militaristic slogans. An article "Americanism as the Enemy" said that the Japanese should study American dynamism, stemming from its social structure, which was taken as praise despite the editor's having added "as the Enemy" to the title, and resulted in the withdrawal of the issue.

Cartoons

Japanese Propaganda, Kuching, Sarawak (AWM 118699)

Cartoonists formed a patriotic association to promote fighting spirit, stir up hatred of the enemy, and encourage people to economize. A notable example was the '' Norakuro'' manga, which began pre-war as humorous episodes of anthropomorphic dogs in the army, but eventually developed into propaganda tales of military exploits against the "pigs army" on the "continent" - a thinly-veiled reference to the

. Cartoons were also used to create informational papers, to instruct occupied populations, and also soldiers about the countries they occupied.

Kamishibai

A form of propaganda unique to Japan was war themed ''

Kamishibai is a form of Japanese street theater and storytelling that was popular during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the post-war period in Japan until the advent of television during the mid-20th century. were performed by a (" narrator") w ...

'' "paper plays": a street performer uses ''

Emakimono or is an illustrated horizontal narration system of painted handscrolls that dates back to Nara-period (710–794 CE) Japan. Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeeding Heian (794–1185) and Ka ...

'' "picture scrolls" to convey the story of the play. Audiences typically included children who would buy candy from the street performer providing his source of income. Unlike American propaganda that often focused on the enemy, Japanese wartime "National Policy" ''Kamishibai'' usually focused on themes of self-sacrifice for the nation, the heroism of martyrs, or instructional messages such as how to respond to an air-raid warning.

Books

The '' Shinmin no Michi'' or ''Path of Subjects'' described what the Japanese should aspire to be, and depicted Western culture as corrupt.John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p24 The booklet ''Read This and the War is Won'', printed for distribution to the army, not only discussed tropical fighting conditions but also why the army fought. Colonialism was presented as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by placing burdens on Asians; because ties of blood connected them to the Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it was Japan's place to "make men of them again."John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p24-5

Textbooks

The Ministry of Education, led by a general, sent out propagandistic textbooks.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p246 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York Military oversight of education was intense, with officers arriving at any time to inspect classes and sometimes rebuke the instructor before the class.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p246, 248 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York Similarly, textbooks were revised in occupied China to instruct Chinese children in heroic Japanese figures. Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 156

Education

Even prior to the war, military education treated science as a way to teach that the Japanese were a morally superior race, and history as teaching pride in Japan, with Japan not being only the most splendid nation, but the only splendid one. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, elementary schools were renamed "National Schools" and charged to produce "children of the Emperor" who would sacrifice themselves for the nation. Children were marched to school where half their time was spent on indoctrination on loyalty to the emperor, and frugality, obedience, honesty, and diligence. Teachers were instructed to teach "Japanese science" based on the "Imperial Way", which precluded evolution in view of their claims to divine descent. Students were given more physical education and required to perform community service.James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 466 Compositions, drawings, calligraphy, and pageants were based on military themes. Those who left school after completing six years were required to attend night school for Japanese history and ethics, military training for boys, and home economics for girls. As the war went on, teachers lay more emphasis on the children's destiny as warriors; when one child grew airsick on a swing, a teacher told him he would not be a good fighter pilot.Max Hastings, ''Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45'' p41 Pupils were shown caricatures of Americans and British to instruct them about their enemy. Girls graduating on

Okinawa is a prefecture of Japan. Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan, has a population of 1,457,162 (as of 2 February 2020) and a geographic area of 2,281 km2 (880 sq mi). Naha is the capital and largest city ...

heard a speech by their principal on how they must work hard to avoid shaming the school before they were inducted into the Student Corps to act as nurses.

Radio

News reports were required to be official state announcements, read exactly, and as the war in China went on, even entertainment programs addressed wartime conditions. The announcement of the war was made by radio, soon followed by an address from Tojo, who informed the people that in order to annihilate the enemy and ensure a stable Asia, a long war had to be anticipated. To take advantage of the radio's adaptability to events, "Morning Addresses" were made twice a month for schools. Short wave radios were used to broadcast anti-European propaganda to Southeast Asia even before the war. Japan, fearful of foreign propaganda, had banned such receivers for Japanese, but built broadcasters for all the occupied countries to extol the benefits of Japanese rule and attack Europeans.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p255 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York "Singing towers" or "singing trees" had loudspeakers on them to spread the broadcasts. Broadcasts to India urged revolt.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p256 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York

Tokyo Rose Tokyo Rose (alternative spelling Tokio Rose) was a name given by Allied troops in the South Pacific during World War II to all female English-speaking radio broadcasters of Japanese propaganda. The programs were broadcast in the South Pacific ...

's broadcasts were aimed at American troops.

Negro propaganda operations

In an effort to exacerbate racial tensions in the United States, the Japanese enacted what was titled, "Negro Propaganda Operations."Masaharu, Sato, and Barak Kushner (1999). "'Negro propaganda operations’: Japan’s short-wave radio broadcasts for world war II black Americans." ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television'' 19(1), 5-26. This plan, created by Yasuichi Hikida, the director of Japanese propaganda for Black Americans, consisted of three areas. First was gathering information pertaining to Black Americans and their struggles in America, second was the use of Black prisoners of war in the propaganda, and third was the use of short-wave radio broadcasts. Through shortwave radio broadcasts, Japanese used their own radio announcers and African American POWs to spread propaganda to the United States. Broadcasts focused on U.S. news stories involving racial tension, such as the Detroit Race riots and lynchings.Menefee, Selden C. (1943) "Japan’s psychological war." ''Social Forces'' 21(4), 425-436.Padover, Saul K. (1943) "Japanese race propaganda." ''The Public Opinion Quarterly'' 7(2), 191-204. For example, one broadcast commented, "notorious lynchings are a rare practice even among the most savage specimens of the human race." In an effort to gain more listeners, POWs would be allowed to address family members back home. The Japanese believed propaganda would be the most effective if they used African American POWs to communicate to African Americans back home. Using programs titled "Conversations about Real Black POW Experiences" and "Humanity Calls", POWs would speak on the conditions of war, and their treatment in the military. POWs with artistic strengths were used in plays and or songs that were broadcast back home. The success of this propaganda is much debated, as only a small minority of people in America had shortwave radios. Even so, some scholars believe that the Negro Propaganda Operations, "evoked a variety of responses within the Black community and the sum total of these reactions forced America’s government to improve conditions for Blacks in the military and society." Even the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) saw the propaganda as, "...a media tool in the struggle against racial discrimination". Despite these debates both sides agree that these programs were particularly dangerous because of their foundation in truth.

Leaflets

Japanese Battle of the Philippines propaganda leaflet 1

Leaflets in China asked why they were not better defended after all the money they had spent. Leaflets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia, urging them to surrender as the Japanese would be better than the Europeans.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p253 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York They were also dropped in India to encourage a revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted.

Slogans

Slogans were used throughout Japan for propaganda purpose. They were used as patriotic exortion – "National Unity", "One Hundred Million With One Spirit" – and to urge frugality – "Away with frivolous entertainment!".

Themes

Kokutai

Kokutai is a concept in the Japanese language translatable as " system of government", "sovereignty", "national identity, essence and character", "national polity; body politic; national entity; basis for the Emperor's sovereignty; Japanese constitu ...

, meaning the uniqueness of the Japanese people in having a leader with spiritual origins, was officially

promulgated Promulgation is the formal proclamation or the declaration that a new statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final approval. In some jurisdictions, this additional step is necessary before the law can take effect. After a new law ...

by the government, including a text book sent about by the Ministry of Education. The purpose of this instruction was to ensure that every child regarded himself first of all as a Japanese and was grateful for the "family polity" structure of government, with its apex in the emperor. Indeed, little effort was made during the course of the war to explain to the Japanese people what it was fought for; instead, it was presented as a chance to rally about the emperor.Richard Overy, ''Why the Allies Won'', p 299 Leaping Patriotic Autumn

In 1937, the pamphlet '' Kokutai no Hongi'' was written to explain the principle. It clearly stated its purpose: to overcome social unrest and to develop a new Japan. From this pamphlet, pupils were taught to put the nation before the self, and that they were part of the state and not separate from it. The Ministry of Education promulgated it throughout the school system. Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present'', p199, , In 1939,

Taisei Yokusankai The , or Imperial Aid Association, was the Empire of Japan's ruling organization during much of World War II. It was created by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe on 12 October 1940, to promote the goals of his ("New Order") movement. It evolved i ...

(Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was founded by the prime minister to "restore the spirit and virtues of old Japan". When the number of patriotic associations during the war worried the government, they were folded into the IRAA, which used them to mobilize the nation and promote unity. In 1941, '' Shinmin no Michi'' was written to instruct the Japanese what to aspire to. Ancient texts set forth the central precepts of loyalty and filial piety, which would throw aside selfishness and allow them to complete their "holy task." It called for them to become "one hundred million hearts beating as one" – a call that would reappear in American anti-Japanese propaganda, though ''Shinmin no Michi'' explicitly said that many Japanese "failed" to act in this manner. The obedience called for was to be blind and absolute. The war would be a purifying experience to draw them back to the "pure and cloudless heart" of their inherent character that they had strayed from.John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p225 Their natural racial purity should be reflected in their unity. Patriotic war songs seldom mentioned the enemy, and then only generically; the tone was elegiac, and the topic was purity and transcendence, often compared to cherry blossom. The final letters of

kamikaze , officially , were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, intending t ...

pilots expressed, above all, that their motivations were gratitude to Japan and to its Emperor as the embodiment of

. One letter, after praising Japanese history and the way of life their ancestors had passed down to them, and the Imperial family as the crystallization of Japan's splendour, concluded, "It is an honor to be able to give my life in defense of these beautiful and lofty things."James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 505 Luxury is our enemy

Intellectuals at an "overcoming modernity" conference proclaimed that prior to the

Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...

, Japan had been a classless society under a benevolent emperor, but the restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism (an argument that ignored commercialism and

ribald Ribaldry or blue comedy is humorous entertainment that ranges from bordering on indelicacy to indecency. Blue comedy is also referred to as "bawdiness" or being "bawdy". Sex is presented in ribald material more for the purpose of poking fun at ...

culture in the

Tokugawa era The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteri ...

), which had caused people to forget their nature, which the war would enable them to reclaim.Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present'', p219-20, , Baseball, jazz, and other Western profligate ways were singled out in government propaganda to be abandoned for a pure spirit of sacrifice. This ''Yamato'' spirit would allow them to overcome the vast disproportion in fighting material. This belief was so well indoctrinated that even as Allied victories overwhelmed the ability of the Japanese government to cover them up with lies, many Japanese refused to believe that "God's country" could be defeated. The military government likewise fought on hopes that the casualty lists would undermine the Allied will to fight. General Ushijami, addressing his troops in Okinawa, told them their greatest strength lay in moral superiority. Even as American forces proceeded from victory to victory, Japanese propaganda claimed military superiority. The attack on Iwo Jima was announced by the "Home and Empire" broadcast with uncommon praise of the American commanders but also the confident declaration that they must not leave the island alive. The dying words of President Roosevelt were altered to "I have made a terrible mistake" and some editorials proclaimed it a punishment of Heaven. American interrogators of prisoners found that they were unshakable in their conviction of Japan's sacred mission. After the war, one Japanese doctor explained to American interrogators that the people of Japan had foolishly believed that the gods would indeed help them out of their predicament. Recruitment poster for the Tank School of the Imperial Japanese Army

Recruitment poster for the Tank School of the Imperial Japanese Army

This also gave them a sense of racial superiority to the Asian peoples they claimed to liberate, which did much to undermine Japanese propaganda for racial unity. Their "bright and strong" souls made them the superior race, and therefore their proper place was in the leadership of the

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere The , also known as the GEACPS, was a concept that was developed in the Empire of Japan and propagated to Asian populations which were occupied by it from 1931 to 1945, and which officially aimed at creating a self-sufficient bloc of Asian peo ...

. Anyone not Japanese was an enemy – devilish, animalistic – including other Asian peoples such as the Chinese. Strict racial segregation was maintained in conquered regions, and they were encouraged to think of themselves as "the world's foremost people." This race was, indeed, to be further improved with physical fitness and social-welfare programs, and population policies to increase their number.John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p271 A campaign to promote fertility, in order to produce future citizens, continued through 1942, and no efforts were made to recruit women to war work for this reason. The slogan "Be fruitful and multiply" was used in campaigns.

Rural life

Despite its military strength being dependent on industrialization, the regime glorified rural life. The traditional rural and agricultural life was opposed to the modern city; proposals were made to fight the atomizing effects of cities by locating schools and factories in the countryside, to maintain the rural population. Agrarianist rhetoric exulted village harmony, even while tenants and landlords were pitted against each other by war needs.

Spiritual mobilization

The

National Spiritual Mobilization Movement The was an organization established in the Empire of Japan as part of the controls on civilian organizations under the National Mobilization Law by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe. Representatives from 74 nationalist organizations were assemble ...

was formed from 74 organizations to rally the nation for a total war effort. It carried out such tasks as instructing schoolchildren on the "Holy war in China", and having women roll bandages for the war effort.Meirion and Susie Harries, ''Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army'' p 257

Production

Even prior to the war, the organization Sanpo existed to explain the need to meet production quotas, even if sacrifices were needed; it did so with rallies, lectures, and panel discussion, and also set up programs to assist workers' lives to attract membership. Among the early victories was one that secured an oil field, giving Japan its own source for the first time; propaganda exulted that Japan was no longer a "have-not" nation. In 1943, as the American industrial juggernaut produced material superiority for the American forces, calls were made for a more war-like footing on part of the population, in particular in calls for increases in war materials. The emphasis on training soldiers rather than arming them had left the armed forces dangerously ill-supplied after the heavy attrition. Morning assemblies at factories had officers address the workers and enjoin them to meet their quotas. The production levels were kept up, albeit at the price of extraordinary sacrifice.

Privation

The government urged Japanese people to do without basic necessities (

privation Privation is the absence or lack of basic necessities. Child psychology In child psychology, privation occurs when a child has no opportunity to form a relationship with a parent figure, or when such relationship is distorted, due to their treat ...

). For example, magazines gave advice on economizing on food and clothing as soon as war broke out with China. After the outbreak of war with the United States, early suggestions that the people enjoyed the victories too much and were not prepared for the long war ahead were not taken, and so early propaganda did not contain warnings.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 258 Random House New York 1970 In 1944, propaganda endeavoured to warn the Japanese people of disasters to come, and install in them a spirit as in Saipan, to accept more privation for the war. Articles were written claiming the Americans could not stage air-raids from Saipan, although since they could from China, they clearly could from Saipan; the purpose was to subtly warn of the dangers to come.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 363 The actual bombing raids brought new meaning to the slogan "We are all equal." Early songs proclaiming that the cities had iron defenses and it was an honor to defend the homeland quickly lost their luster. Still, continued calls to sacrifice were honored; neighborhood association helped, as no one wanted to be seen quitting first. Accounts of self-sacrificing privation were common in the press: a teacher dressed in tatters who refused to wear a new shirt because all his friends are likewise tattered, and officers and governmental officials who made do without any form of heating. This reflected the privation actually in society, where clothing was at premium and the work week was seven days long, with schooling cut to a minimum so that children could work.

Hakkō ichiu

2600th year of Japanese Imperial Calendar stamp of 10sen

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...

's demands for

Lebensraum (, ''living space'') is a German concept of settler colonialism, the philosophy and policies of which were common to German politics from the 1890s to the 1940s. First popularized around 1901, '' lso in:' became a geopolitical goal of Imper ...

, Japanese propaganda complained of being kept trapped in its own home waters. Hakkō ichiu, "to bring the eight corners of the world under one roof", added a religious overtone to the theme. It was based on the story of Emperor

Jimmu was the legendary first emperor of Japan according to the '' Nihon Shoki'' and ''Kojiki''. His ascension is traditionally dated as 660 BC.Kelly, Charles F"Kofun Culture"John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p223 In 1940, the '' Japan Times and Mail'' recounted the story of Jimmu on the 2600 anniversary. The news of

Hitler's Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...

success in Europe, followed by Mussolini's joining in the conflict, produced the slogan "Don't miss the bus!" as the European war gave them the opportunity to conquer Southeast Asia for its resources. On the outbreak of war, Tojo declared that as long as there remains a spirit of loyalty and patriotism under this policy, there was nothing to fear. '' An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus'' explicitly called for such expansion; although a secret document for use of the policy-makers, it laid out explicitly what is elsewhere hinted at in. It explicitly laid out that the superior position of Japan in the Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, showing the subordination of other nations was not forced by the war, but part of explicit policy. This was also justified on the grounds that the resource-poor Japanese could not count on any sources of raw material that they did not control themselves. Propaganda stated that Japan was being strangled by "ABCD" – America, Britain, China, and Dutch East Indies—through trade embargoes and boycotts. Even in preparation of the war, the newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 219

''Bushido''

The samurai code '' bushido'' was pressed into service for indoctrination in militarism. This was used to present war as purifying, and death a duty.David Powers,
Japan: No Surrender in World War Two
This worked to prevent surrenders, both of those who adhered to it, and of those who feared disgrace if they did not die. This was presented as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern." War was presented as a purifying experience, albeit only for the Japanese. ''Bushido'' would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end. All soldiers were expected to adhere to it, although historically it had been the duty of higher ranked ''samurai'' and not common soldiers. 9 Gunshin

As taught, it produced a reckless indifference to the technological side of warfare. Japan's production was a fraction of America's, making equipment difficult. Officers declared themselves indifferent to radar, because they had perfectly good eyes. The blue-eyed Americans would necessarily be inferior to the dark-eyed Japanese at night attacks. At Imphal, the commander declared to his troops that it was a battle between their spiritual strength and the British material strength, a command which became famous as rubric of Japanese spirit. Soldiers were told that the bayonet was their central weapon, and many kept them affixed at all times. Guns were treated as symbolic representations of martial spirit and loyalty, so any negligence regarding them was severely punished. As early as the Shanghai Incident, the principles of victory or death were already implemented, and much was made of a captured Japanese soldier who returned to the site of his capture to commit '' seppuku''. Three troopers who had blown themselves up on a section of barbed wire were lauded as "three human bombs" and featured in no less than six films, even though they may have died only because their fuses were too short.Michael Burleigh, ''Moral Combat: Good And Evil In World War II'', p 16 Tojo himself, in a 1940 booklet, urged the spirit of self-sacrifice on soldiers, to not consider death. It unquestionably contributed to the maltreatment of prisoners of war, who had performed the disgraceful act of surrender.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 301 Random House New York 1970 Another consequence was that nothing was done to train soldiers for captivity, with the result that Americans found Japanese prisoners much easier to get information from than the Japanese found American prisoners. In 1932,

Akiko Yosano Yosano Akiko (Shinjitai: , seiji: ; 7 December 1878 – 29 May 1942) was the pen-name of a Japanese author, poet, pioneering feminist, pacifist, and social reformer, active in the late Meiji era as well as the Taishō and early Shōwa eras of ...

's poetry urged Japanese soldiers to endure sufferings in China and compared the dead soldiers to

cherry blossoms A cherry blossom, also known as Japanese cherry or sakura, is a flower of many trees of genus ''Prunus'' or ''Prunus'' subg. ''Cerasus''. They are common species in East Asia, including China, Korea and especially in Japan. They generall ...

, a traditional image that would be put to great use throughout the war. The emphasis on this tradition and the lack of a comparable military tradition in the United States led to an underestimating of American fighting spirit, which surprised Japanese forces at Midway,

Bataan Bataan (), officially the Province of Bataan ( fil, Lalawigan ng Bataan ), is a province in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Balanga while Mariveles is the largest town in the province. Occupying the enti ...

, and other Pacific War battles. It also emphasized attack at the expense of defense. ''Bushido'' argued for bold advances in the face of common sense, which was urged on the troops. Yasukuni 75Th

The dead were treated as "war gods", starting with the nine submariners who died at Pearl Harbor (with the tenth, taken prisoner, never being mentioned in Japanese press). The burials of and memorials for "hero gods" who had fallen in battle provided the Japanese public with news of battle that had not been otherwise released, as when a submarine attack on Sydney was revealed through burial of four who died; this propaganda frequently clashed with propaganda on victory. Even years before the war, children had been instructed in school that dying for the emperor transformed one into a deity. As the war turned, the spirit of ''bushido'' was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation. Media were filled with stories of samurai, old and new. Newspapers printed ''bidan'', beautiful stories, about dead soldiers with their photographs and having a family member speak of them; before Pearl Harbor and the crushing casualties of the Pacific War, they endeavoured to get such a story for every fallen soldier. While fighting in China, the casualties were low enough that individual cases were glorified. Letters from "fallen heroes" became a staple of Japanese newspapers by 1944. Defeats were treated chiefly in terms of resistance to death. The ''

Time Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, ...

'' magazine article on Saipan and the mass civilian suicides there was widely reported with the "awe-filled" enemy reports treated as evidence of the glory of sacrifice and the pride of Japanese women. When the

Battle of Attu The Battle of Attu (codenamed Operation Landcrab), which took place on 11–30 May 1943, was a battle fought between forces of the United States, aided by Canadian reconnaissance and fighter-bomber support, and Japan on Attu Island off the coas ...

was lost, attempts were made to make the more than two thousand Japanese deaths an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation. Suicidal rushes were glorified as showing the Japanese spirit. Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death." The last message of the forces on

Peleliu Peleliu (or Beliliou) is an island in the island nation of Palau. Peleliu, along with two small islands to its northeast, forms one of the sixteen states of Palau. The island is notable as the location of the Battle of Peleliu in World War II. H ...

was " Sakura, Sakura" – cherry blossoms. The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance because while ''bushido'' called for a warrior to be always aware of death, he was not to view it as the sole end.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 356 The Japanese Imperial Navy had not ordered any attacks it was impossible to survive; even with the midget submarines in the Pearl Harbor attack, plans had been made for rejoining the mother ship, if feasible. The desperate straits brought about acceptance. Propagandists immediately set about ennobling such deaths. Such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido, and became an integral part of strategy with Okinawa.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 713 Random House New York 1970 Fuji and Sakura 20sen stamp

Vice Admiral

Takijirō Ōnishi was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II who came to be known as the father of the ''kamikaze''. Early career Ōnishi was a native of Ashida village (part of present-day Tamba City) in Hyōgo Prefecture. He graduated fr ...

addressed the first

(suicide attack) unit, telling them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat. The names of four sub-units within the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force were ''Unit Shikishima'', ''Unit Yamato'', ''Unit Asahi'', and ''Unit Yamazakura''. These names were taken from a patriotic poem (

waka Waka may refer to: Culture and language * Waka (canoe), a Polynesian word for canoe; especially, canoes of the Māori of New Zealand ** Waka ama, a Polynesian outrigger canoe ** Waka hourua, a Polynesian ocean-going canoe ** Waka taua, a Māori w ...

or tanka), ''Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana'' by the Japanese classical scholar,

Motoori Norinaga was a Japanese scholar of ''Kokugaku'' active during the Edo period. He is conventionally ranked as one of the Four Great Men of Kokugaku (nativist) studies. Life Norinaga was born in what is now Matsusaka in Ise Province (now part of Mie ...

. This also drew upon popular symbolism in Japan of the fall of the cherry blossom as a symbol of mortality. These, and other kamikaze attackers, were acclaimed as national heroes.

Divers Diver or divers may refer to: *Diving (sport), the sport of performing acrobatics while jumping or falling into water *Practitioner of underwater diving, including: **scuba diving, **freediving, **surface-supplied diving, **saturation diving, a ...

, prepared for such work in the event of the invasion of Japan, were given individual ensigns, to indicate they could replace an entire ship, and carefully separated so that they would die from their own handiwork rather than another's. The propaganda urging such deaths, and resistance to death, was issued in hopes that the bitter resistance would induce the Americans to offer terms. When Togo made approaches to the Soviet Union, these were interpreted as asking for peace, which the newspapers instantly repudiated—they would not seek peace but win the war—a view enforced by the

kempeitai The , also known as Kempeitai, was the military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945 that also served as a secret police force. In addition, in Japanese-occupied territories, the Kenpeitai arrested or killed those suspecte ...

, who arrested for any hint of "defeatism." The army's manual on defending the homeland called for the slaughter of any Japanese who impeded the defense. Japanese propaganda of "fighting to the bitter end" and "the hundred-year war", indeed, led many Americans, beyond questions of hatred and racism, to conclude that a war of extermination might be the only possibility of victory, the question being whether the Japanese would surrender before such extermination was complete. Even after the atomic attacks and the Emperor's insistence that they surrender,

Inaba Masao was a Japanese officer during World War II of the Military Affairs Bureau.John Toland John Toland (30 November 167011 March 1722) was an Irish rationalist philosopher and freethinker, and occasional satirist, who wrote numerous books and pa ...

issued a statement urging the Army to fight to the bitter end; when other colonels informed him of a proclamation made to hint of the prospect of surrender to the population, they rushed to ensure Inaba's was broadcast, to create conflicting messages. This caused consternation in the government for fear of American reaction, and to prevent delay, the surrender was sent out as a news story, in English and Morse code to prevent military censors from halting it.

Intelligence

Early training for intelligence agents tried to infuse the service with the traditional mystery of spying in Japan, citing the spirit of the

ninja A or was a covert agent or mercenary in feudal Japan. The functions of a ninja included reconnaissance, espionage, infiltration, deception, ambush, bodyguarding and their fighting skills in martial arts, including ninjutsu.Kawakami, pp. 2 ...

In China

In occupied China, textbooks were revised to omit tales of Japanese atrocities and instead focus on heroic Japanese figures, including one officer who divorced his wife before going to China, so that he could focus on the war, and she would be free of the burden of filial piety toward his parents, since he would certainly die.

Against atrocity claims

Tight government censorship prevented the Japanese population from hearing of atrocities in China. When news of atrocities reached Western countries, Japan launched propaganda to combat it, both denying it and interviewing prisoners to counter it. They were, it was proclaimed, being well-treated by virtue of ''bushido'' generosity. The interviews were also described as being not propaganda but out of sympathy with the enemy, such sympathy as only ''bushido'' could inspire.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 257 The effect on Americans was tempered by subtle messages imbedded by the prisoners, including such comments as the declaration they were allowed to continue to wear the clothes they had been captured in. As early as the

Bataan Death March The Bataan Death March (Filipino: ''Martsa ng Kamatayan sa Bataan''; Spanish: ''Marcha de la muerte de Bataán'' ; Kapampangan: ''Martsa ning Kematayan quing Bataan''; Japanese: バターン死の行進, Hepburn: ''Batān Shi no Kōshin'') wa ...

, the Japanese had ''

The Manila Times ''The Manila Times'' is the oldest extant English-language newspaper in the Philippines. It is published daily by The Manila Times Publishing Corp. (formerly La Vanguardia Publishing Corporation) with editorial and administrative offices at 2/F ...

'' claim that the prisoners were treated humanely and their death rate had to be attributed to the intransigence of the American commanders who did not surrender until their men were on the verge of death. After the torture and execution of several of the

Doolittle Raid The Doolittle Raid, also known as the Tokyo Raid, was an air raid on 18 April 1942 by the United States on the Japanese capital Tokyo and other places on Honshu during World War II. It was the first American air operation to strike the Japa ...

ers, the '' Nippon Times'' proclaimed the humane treatment of American and British prisoners of war in order to declare that British forces were treating German prisoners inhumanely.

Anti-Western

The United States and Great Britain were attacked years before the war, with any Western idea conflicting with Japanese practice being labeled "dangerous thoughts."Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p249 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York They were attacked as materialistic and soulless, both in Japan and in short-wave broadcasts to Southeast Asia. Not only were such thoughts censored through strict control of publishing, the government used various popular organizations to foment hostility to them. Great Britain was attacked with particular fervor owing to its many colonies, and blamed for the continued stalemate in China. Chiang Kai-shek was denounced as a Western puppet, supplied through British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies. Militarists, hating the arms control treaties that allowed Japan only 3 ships for British and American 5, used "5-5-3" as a nationalistic slogan. Furthermore, they wished to escape an international capitalist system dominated by British and American interests. Anti-Britain poster by Tohokai

Newspapers, in the days leading up to Pearl Harbor, kept up an ominous repetition of intransigence on the part of the United States. The news of the

resulted in newspapers staging a "Rally to Crush the United States and Great Britain." When the government found the war songs too abstract and elegiac, it staged a nationwide competition for a song to a march tune with the title "Down with Britain and America." After such atrocities as the

, cruel treatment of prisoners of war was justified on the grounds they had sacrificed other people's lives but surrendered to save their own, and had acted with utmost selfishness throughout their campaign. The pamphlet ''The Psychology of the American Individual'', addressed to soldiers, informed them that Americans had no thought of the glory of their ancestors, their posterity, or their family name, they were daredevils in search of publicity, they feared death and did not care what happened after it, they were liars and easily taken in by flattery and propaganda, and being materialistic, they relied on material superiority rather than spiritual incentive in battle. Praise of the enemy was treated as treason, and no newspaper could print anything mentioning the enemy favorably, no matter how much the Japanese forces found enemy combat spirit and effectiveness praiseworthy. Intellectuals promulgated anti-Western views with particular fervor.Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present'', p219, , A conference on "overcoming modernity" proclaimed the "world historical meaning" of the war was resistance to the Western cultural ideas imposed on Japan. The

had plunged the nation into Western materialism (an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era), which had caused people to forget they were a classless society under a benevolent emperor, but the war would shake off these notions. The government likewise urged the abandonment of Western ways—such as baseball and jazz—for a pure spirit of sacrifice. Officially, this was not to be presented as a racial war, because of the alliance with Italy and Germany, and to some policymakers, because such a claim was incompatible with Japan's high moral purpose, but as the alliance was both secure and solely of expedience, much antiwhite rhetoric was promulgated. A propagandistic account of Germans in Java depicted them as grateful to be now under Japanese protection. In the United States, Elmer Davis of the

Office of War Information The United States Office of War Information (OWI) was a United States government agency created during World War II. The OWI operated from June 1942 until September 1945. Through radio broadcasts, newspapers, posters, photographs, films and other ...

argued that this propaganda could be combated by deeds that counteracted this, but was unable to get support.

Weakness

The Allies were also attacked as weak and effete, unable to sustain a long war, a view at first supported by a string of victories. The lack of a warrior tradition such as ''bushido'' reinforced this belief. The armed forces were told that American forces would not come to fight them, that Americans could not fight in the jungle and indeed could not stand warfare. Accounts of prisoners of war depicted the Americans as cowardly and willing to do anything to gain favor. Subordinates were actively encouraged to treat prisoners contemptuously, to foster feelings of superiority toward them. Both Americans and British were presented as figures of fun, resulting in serious weakness when complacency induced by propaganda met the actual enemy strength. Shortly prior to the

Radio Tokyo , also known as NHK, is a Japanese public broadcaster. NHK, which has always been known by this romanized initialism in Japanese, is a statutory corporation funded by viewers' payments of a television license fee. NHK operates two terrestria ...

jeered at a foreign report of bombing on the grounds it was impossible. The Doolittle Raid itself was minimized, reporting little damage, and concluding, correctly, that it had been carried out for American morale. Many Japanese pilots believed that their strength and American softness would result in their victory. The ferocity and self-sacrificing attacks of American pilots at the

Battle of Midway The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place on 4–7 June 1942, six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under ...

undermined the propaganda, as did the fighting at the

Battle of Bataan The Battle of Bataan ( tl, Labanan sa Bataan; January 7 – April 9, 1942) was fought by the United States and the Philippine Commonwealth against Japan during World War II. The battle represented the most intense phase of the Japanese inva ...

and other Pacific battlefields.William L. O'Neill, ''A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II'', p 125, 127 The surrender terms offered by the United States were scorned by the newspapers as ludicrous, urging that the government remain silent about them, which indeed, the government did, a traditional Japanese technique for dealing with the unacceptable.

Against American morale

Japanese Battle of the Philippines propaganda leaflet 2

Most propaganda attacks against the American troops were aimed at morale.

gave sentimental broadcasts, designed to arouse homesickness. She would also taunt the troops as suckers, with the prospect of their wives and sweethearts taking up with new men while they fought. There were also broadcasts of prisoners of war speaking on the radio, to assure that they were being treated well; these were sandwiched between news reports of varying lengths, so that the entire broadcast had to be heard to be sure of hearing the prisoner. Farewell, American Soldiers!

These programs were not well designed, as they assumed that the Americans did not want to fight, underestimating the psychological effect of

, and that hostility to Roosevelt's domestic policies translated into hostility to his foreign policy.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p257 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York Indeed, they believed that the Pearl Harbor attack would be regarded as a defensive act, forced on them by "Roosevelt and his clique". American forces were less wed to the notion of "decisive battle" than Japanese were, and so the opening string of victories had less impact on them than expected. Furthermore, the prisoners who spoke often included subtle messages that undermined the anti-atrocity propaganda, stating they had been "allowed" the clothing they had worn when captured to make it clear that they had been given no new clothes. A pamphlet dropped on the forces on

declared that President Roosevelt's death had been caused by the extensive damage the Japanese had inflicted on American ships, which would continue until the ships were all sunk, and the American forces thus orphaned.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 702 Random House New York 1970 One soldier, reading it while the ships were bombarding the shore, asked where they thought the gunfire was coming from.

Anti-communist

Communism was enumerated among the Western dangerous ideas. However, during the invasion of China, Japanese propaganda to the United States played on American

anti-communism Anti-communism is political and ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States and the ...

to win support.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 165 It was also offered to the Japanese people as a way of forging a bulwark against communism. Propaganda was also used to demonise the

Chinese Communist Party The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil ...

Allied atrocities

'' Shinmin no Michi'', the Path of the Subject, discussed American historical atrocities and presented Western history as brutal wars, exploitation, and destructive values. Its

colonialism Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colony, colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose the ...

was based on its destructive individualism, materialism, utilitarianism, and liberalism, all which allowed the strong to prey on the weak. While minimizing the effect of the

, propaganda also depicted the raiders as inhuman demons attacking civilians. Shortly after those of the raiders who had been captured had been tortured, and some executed, the '' Nippon Times'' denounced British treatment of German prisoners of war, claiming that American and British prisoners held by Japan were being treated in accordance with international law.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 598 Random House New York 1970 Allied war purposes were presented as annihilation. Japanese civilians were told that the Americans would commit rape, torture, and murder and they therefore were to kill themselves rather than surrender; on Saipan and Okinawa, large majorities of the civilian population did commit suicide or kill each other before the American victory. Those captured on Saipan were often terrified of their captors, particularly of the black soldiers, although this was not solely due to propaganda, but because many had never seen blacks before. The demand for unconditional surrender was heavily exploited. Interrogated prisoners reported that this propaganda was widely believed and therefore people would resist to the death. Accounts of American soldiers murdering German prisoners of war were also told, regardless of accuracy. Much play was made of American soldiers desecrating the bodies of the dead, omitting that such acts were condemned by both military authorities and from America pulpits. That President Roosevelt was presented with a gift from a Japanese soldier's forearm was reported, but not that he refused it and argued for a decent burial. In

, much was made of Japanese calls to devotion to death. Some soldiers attacked civilians, on the grounds they would not surrender, and which in turn served as grist for Japanese propaganda about American atrocities. Even before the American pamphlets warning of the great power of atomic explosions, newspapers commenting on the atomic attacks reported that the bombs could not be taken lightly; ''The Nippon Times'' reported that it was clearly intended to kill many innocent people, to end the war quickly, and others proclaimed it a moral outrage.

To the occupied countries

Extensive use of posters was made in China, to endeavour to convince the Chinese that the Europeans were enemies, especially the Americans and British.Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II'', p244 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York Much was made of the opium trade. Similarly, the Philippines were propagandized about "American exploitation," "American Imperialism," and "American tyranny," and blame was laid on the United States for starting the war. They were assured that they were not Japan's enemies, and that the American forces would not return. The effect of this was considerably undermined by the actions of the Japanese Army, and the Filipinos soon wanted the Americans to return to free them from the Japanese.

Black propaganda Black propaganda is a form of propaganda intended to create the impression that it was created by those it is supposed to discredit. Black propaganda contrasts with gray propaganda, which does not identify its source, as well as white propagan ...

posed as American instructions to avoid venereal disease by having sexual intercourse with wives or other respectable Filipina women rather than prostitutes. After the fall of Singapore, American and British were sent as prisoners to Korea to eradicate Korean admiration for them. Ragged prisoners of war, brought to Korea as forced labor, were also marched through the streets, to show how the European forces had fallen. In the occupied countries short-wave radios attacked Europeans, particularly "White Australia", which, broadcasts claimed, could support 100 million instead of the current 7 million, if the industrious Asians were allowed to make it bloom. Broadcasts and leaflets urged India to revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted. Other leaflets and posters, aimed at Allied forces of different nationalities, attempted to drive a wedge between them by attacking other Allied countries.

Antisemitic

This Western hegemony was presented, sometimes, as being masterminded by Jews. Especially in the early years of the war, a spate of anti-Jewish propaganda was produced, which appears to be the effect of the Nazi alliance.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

During the war, "Asia for the Asians" was a widespread slogan, though undermined by brutal Japanese treatment in occupied countries. This was in service of the

, where the new Japanese empire was presented as an Asian equivalent of the

Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was a United States foreign policy position that opposed European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. It held that any intervention in the political affairs of the Americas by foreign powers was a potentially hostile act ...

. The regions of Asia, it was argued, were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the United States. This was initially, while plausible, very popular among the occupied nations. Japanese victories were initially cheered in support of this aim. Many Japanese remained convinced, throughout the war, that the Sphere was idealistic, offering slogans in a newspaper competition, praising the sphere for constructive efforts and peace. DaitouaKyoueiken

During the war with China, the prime minister announced on radio they were seeking only a new order to ensure the stability of East Asia, unfortunately prevented because Chiang Kai-shek was a Western puppet.James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 451 The failure to win the

was blamed on British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies to supply the Chinese, even though the Chinese received far more assistance from the Soviet Union.James L. McClain, ''Japan: A Modern History'' p 471 Later, pamphlets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia, urging them to join this movement. Mutual cultural societies were founded in all conquered nations to ingratiate with the natives and try to supplant English with Japanese as the commonly used language. Multi-lingual pamphlets depicted many Asians marching or working together in happy unity, with the flags of all the nations and a map depicting the intended sphere. Others proclaimed that they had given independent governments to the countries they occupied, a claim undermined by the lack of power given these puppet governments.JAPANESE PSYOP DURING WWII
In Thailand, a street was built to demonstrate it, to be filled with modern buildings and shops, but nine-tenths of it consisted of false fronts. The

Greater East Asia Conference was an international summit held in Tokyo from 5 to 6 November 1943, in which the Empire of Japan hosted leading politicians of various component members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The event was also referred to as the Toky ...

was highly publicized. Tojo greeted them with a speech praising the "spiritual essence" of Asia, as opposed to the "materialistic civilization" of the West. At it

Ba Maw Ba Maw ( my, ဘမော်, ; 8 February 1893 – 29 May 1977) was a Burmese lawyer and political leader, active during the interwar and World War II periods. Dr. Ba Maw is a descendant of the Mon Dynasty. He was the first Burma Premier ...

declared that his Asian blood had always called out to other Asians, and that it was not time to think with minds, but with blood, and many other Asian leaders supported Japan in terms of an East vs. West conflict of bloods.John W. Dower, ''War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p6 Japanese oppression and racial pretensions slowly undermined this dream. The booklet ''Read This and the War is Won'' was intended for the Japanese army. It presented colonialism as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by burdening Asians; because ties of blood connect them to Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it was Japan's place to "make men of them again."

China

In China, leaflets were dropped arguing that the "mandate of heaven" had clearly been lost, so that authority moved to the new leaders. Propaganda also spoke of the benefits of the "kingly way" (王道 ''wang tao'' or, in Japanese ''odo'') as a solution to both nationalism and radicalism.

Philippines

The Philippines were their first target after Pearl Harbor, and instructions to propagandists called for rousing "the spirit of the Far East" and inspiring them with militarism to fight beside the Japanese. "Surrender cards" were dropped to allow soldiers to surrender safely by handing over a card.

Jorge B. Vargas Jorge Bartolomé Vargas y Celis (August 24, 1890 – February 22, 1980) was a Filipino lawyer, diplomat and youth advocate born in Bago, Negros Occidental, Philippines. He graduated valedictorian from Negros Occidental High School in 1909 and ...

, the Chairman of the Executive Committee, Provisional Philippine Council of State, signed one leaflet that was dropped urging surrender.

Korea

Korea had long been colonized about thirty years. The Governor-General of Japan announced his pleasure in their economic progress and assured them that this happened in only thirty years because of the way their governor-generals had devoted themselves to this colonized peninsula' benefit.
The Japanese attempted to co-opt the Koreans, urging them to view themselves as part of one "imperial race" with Japan, and even presenting themselves as rescuing a nation too long under the shadow of China.
However, native Koreans lost their estate, society and position, which encouraged resistance.

India

The

Battle of Imphal ) , partof = the Operation U-Go during the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II , image = Imphalgurkhas.jpg , image_size = 300 , caption = Gurkhas advancing with Grant tanks ...

was fought, in part, to show the Indian National Army to the Indians, in hopes of provoking a revolt against the Raj.

Self-defense

Propaganda declared that the war had been forced on them in self-defense. As early as the

Manchurian Incident The Mukden Incident, or Manchurian Incident, known in Chinese as the 9.18 Incident (九・一八), was a false flag event staged by Japanese military personnel as a pretext for the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria. On September 18, 1931, L ...

, the mass media uncriticially spread the report that the Chinese had caused the explosion, attacking Japan's rights and interests, and therefore the Japanese must defend their rights, even at great sacrifice. This argument was made even to the

League of Nations The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...

: they were only trying to prevent anti-Japanese activities by the

Guomindang The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Taiw ...

. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures. Indeed, after the attack, propaganda to American forces operated on the assumption that Americans would regard Pearl Harbor as a defensive act, forced on them by "Roosevelt and his clique".

Victories

For propaganda purposes, defeats were presented at home as great victories. Much was made of Japan's 2,600-year history without defeats. The wars of

1895 Events January–March * January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. * January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...

and

1904 Events January * January 7 – The distress signal ''CQD'' is established, only to be replaced 2 years later by ''SOS''. * January 8 – The Blackstone Library is dedicated, marking the beginning of the Chicago Public Library syst ...

were presented by historians as overwhelming triumphs instead of narrowly won. For a long time, the armed forces held to the belief that a string of victories would demoralize the Americans sufficiently for a negotiated peace. Coral Sea Japan Times cartoon

This began with the claims about the war in China. It continued with newspaper exultation over the

. and continued with the string of early Japanese successes. This produced an exuberance in the people that did not brace them for a long war, but suggestions that it be tempered were not accepted. Even in the early stages, exaggerated claims were made, such as that Hawaii was in danger of starvation even though the Japanese submarines were not raiding commerce, as would have been needed to bring this about. The capture of Singapore was triumphantly declared as deciding the general situation of the war. The

produced considerable shock and efforts to counter the impact were made. The army, after some victories, clearly began to believe its own propaganda. Very few statements even hinted that more was needed prior to victory. The prolonged resistance at Bataan was in part enabled by orders that required a spectacular victory for propaganda points, resulting in Japanese forces taking Manila while American forces entrenched. Dogged American resistance at Corregidor resulted in occasional declarations that its defeat was near, followed by weeks of silence. The

Battle of Coral Sea The Battle of the Coral Sea, from 4 to 8 May 1942, was a major naval battle between the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and naval and air forces of the United States and Australia. Taking place in the Pacific Theatre of World War II, the battl ...

was presented as a victory rather than inconclusive, exaggerating American losses and understating Japanese ones. Indeed, it was presented as a sweeping triumph, rather than the marginal tactical victory that could reasonably be claimed. Declarations were made that the battle had rendered the Americans panic-stricken, when in fact, they had also proclaimed it a victory. The attack on Midway was rendered crucial by the Doolittle Raid, which had sneaked through the defensive perimeter at that point and, while not causing serious damage, had caused humiliation and propaganda difficulties. The clear defeat at the

continued this pattern. Newspapers were informed only of American damage, with the Japanese losses entirely omitted. The survivors of the lost ships were sworn to silence and packed off to distant fronts to prevent the truth becoming known. Even Tojo was not informed of the truth until a month after the battle. The word "retreat" was never used, even to the troops. In 1943, the army invented a new verb ''tenshin'', to march elsewhere, to avoid referring to their forces as retreating. Japanese who used the term "strategic retreat" were warned against doing so. One reason for the execution of captured American aircrew was to hide their presence, evidence that the Japanese forces were falling back. By the time of the Guadalcanal Campaign newspapers were no longer covering their first pages with victories but adding stories about the battles in Europe and the Prosperity Sphere, but some battles had to be presented as victories. Reporters wrote articles as if they were winning. Japanese authorities published accounts boasting of the casualties inflicted before withdrawal. The

Battle of the Eastern Solomons The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons (also known as the Battle of the Stewart Islands and, in Japanese sources, as the Second Battle of the Solomon Sea) took place on 24–25 August 1942, and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific cam ...

was reported not only exaggerating American damage, but claiming that the carrier ''

Hornet Hornets (insects in the genus ''Vespa'') are the largest of the eusocial wasps, and are similar in appearance to their close relatives yellowjackets. Some species can reach up to in length. They are distinguished from other vespine wasps by th ...

'' had been sunk, thus taking revenge for its part in the Doolittle Raid, when in fact ''Hornet'' had not been in the battle. The

Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, fought during 25–27 October 1942, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Santa Cruz or Third Battle of Solomon Sea, in Japan as the Battle of the South Pacific ( ''Minamitaiheiyō kaisen''), was the fourt ...

, while a Japanese tactical victory, gained time for the Americans on Guadalcanal and inflicted heavy losses on Japanese aircraft; it was considered so momentous that it was praised in an imperial rescript. Lets win the Greater East Asia War

However, by 1943, the Japanese population was aware of the stark difference between the crude propaganda and the facts. The death of

Isoroku Yamamoto was a Marshal Admiral of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and the commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet during World War II until he was killed. Yamamoto held several important posts in the IJN, and undertook many of its changes and reor ...

inflicted a severe blow.John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945'' p 444 Random House New York 1970 It was followed by defeat at the

, which propaganda could not make inspirational. Accounts of the battle at Saipan concentrated on the fighting spirit and the heavy American casualties, but familiarity with geography would demonstrate that the battles slowly progressed northwards as the American forces advanced, and the reports stopped with the final battle, which was not reported. Reports of "annihilation" did not prevent American forces from continuing to fight. Furthermore, newspapers were allowed to speculate about the future of the war as long as they did not predict defeat or otherwise evince disloyalty; the truth could be discerned from their presuppositions. After Saipan had led to the resignation of Tojo as prime minister, an accurate account of the fall of Saipan was published by the army and navy, including the nearly total loss of all Japanese soldiers and civilians on the island, and the use of "human bullets", leading many to conclude that the war was lost.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 352 This was the first uncensored war news they had issued since 1938, during the war with China. The simultaneous and disastrous Battle of Philippine Sea was still obfuscated in the old manner. A battle off Formosa was declared a victory, and a holiday declared, when in fact Americans had inflicted heavy damage and drawn off planes needed to defend the Philippines. Inexperienced pilots reported crippling attacks on the ships of

United States Third Fleet The United States Third Fleet is one of the numbered fleets in the United States Navy. Third Fleet's area of responsibility includes approximately fifty million square miles of the eastern and northern Pacific Ocean areas including the Bering ...

shortly prior to the

Battle of Leyte A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...

, which were accepted at face value when the pilots had in fact not sunk a single ship. The first suicide attacks were likewise presented as successful in causing damage, in contradiction of the facts. A shot-down B-29 was displayed along with the boast that it was one of hundreds.

Peace

When the offer to surrender had been made,

Kōichi Kido Marquis (July 18, 1889 – April 6, 1977) was a Japanese statesman who served as Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan from 1940 to 1945, and was the closest advisor to Emperor Hirohito throughout World War II. He was convicted of war crimes ...

showed the Emperor the American pamphlets telling of the offer and stated that uninformed soldiers might start an uprising if this fell into their hands. The Cabinet agreed that the proclamation had to come from the emperor himself, although in concession to his position it was decided to make it a recording rather than a live broadcast. The

Kyūjō Incident The was an attempted military coup d'état in the Empire of Japan at the end of the Second World War. It happened on the night of 14–15 August 1945, just before the announcement of Japan's surrender to the Allies. The coup was attempted by th ...

, attempting to prevent the broadcast, failed.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War'', p 411

References

* Jansen, Marius B. (2002)
''The Making of Modern Japan.''
Cambridge:

Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retir ...

.
OCLC 52086912

External links

Article on Japanese Propaganda in China during WWII from Japanese Press Translations
{{Second Sino-Japanese War World War II propaganda Anti-Americanism Anti-Chinese sentiment in Asia Antisemitism in Japan Japanese nationalism Politics of the Empire of Japan Propaganda in Japan Racism in Japan Second Sino-Japanese War