Polyphemus (; grc-gre, Πολύφημος, Polyphēmos, ; la, Polyphēmus ) is the one-eyed giant son of
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ...
and
Thoosa in
Greek mythology
A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities ...
, one of the
Cyclopes
In Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, the Cyclopes ( ; el, Κύκλωπες, ''Kýklōpes'', "Circle-eyes" or "Round-eyes"; singular Cyclops ; , ''Kýklōps'') are giant one-eyed creatures. Three groups of Cyclopes can be distinguish ...
described in
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
's ''
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Iliad'', th ...
''. His name means "abounding in songs and legends". Polyphemus first appeared as a savage man-eating giant in the ninth book of the ''Odyssey''. The
satyr play
The satyr play is a form of Attic theatre performance related to both comedy and tragedy. It preserves theatrical elements of dialogue, actors speaking verse, a chorus that dances and sings, masks and costumes. Its relationship to tragedy is str ...
of Euripides is dependent on this episode apart from one detail; Polyphemus is made a
pederast in the play. Later Classical writers presented him in their poems as heterosexual and linked his name with the nymph
Galatea
Galatea is an ancient Greek name meaning "she who is milk-white".
Galatea, Galathea or Gallathea may refer to:
In mythology
* Galatea (Greek myth), three different mythological figures
In the arts
* ''Aci, Galatea e Polifemo'', cantata by H ...
. Often he was portrayed as unsuccessful in these, and as unaware of his disproportionate size and musical failings. In the work of even later authors, however, he is presented as both a successful lover and skilled musician. From the Renaissance on, art and literature reflect all of these interpretations of the giant.
Odysseus and Polyphemus
Ancient sources
In Homer's epic,
Odysseus lands on the island of the Cyclopes during his journey home from the
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and ...
and, together with some of his men, enters a cave filled with provisions. When the giant Polyphemus returns home with his flocks, he blocks the entrance with a great stone and, scoffing at the
usual custom of
hospitality
Hospitality is the relationship between a guest and a host, wherein the host receives the guest with some amount of goodwill, including the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers. Louis, chevalier de Jaucourt describes ...
, eats two of the men. Next morning, the giant kills and eats two more and leaves the cave to graze his sheep.
After the giant returns in the evening and eats two more of the men, Odysseus offers Polyphemus some strong and undiluted wine given to him earlier on his journey. Drunk and unwary, the giant asks Odysseus his name, promising him a
guest-gift if he answers. Odysseus tells him "
Οὖτις", which means "nobody" and Polyphemus promises to eat this "Nobody" last of all. With that, he falls into a drunken sleep. Odysseus had meanwhile hardened a wooden stake in the fire and drives it into Polyphemus' eye. When Polyphemus shouts for help from his fellow giants, saying that "Nobody" has hurt him, they think Polyphemus is being afflicted by divine power and recommend prayer as the answer.
In the morning, the blind Cyclops lets the sheep out to graze, feeling their backs to ensure that the men are not escaping. However, Odysseus and his men have tied themselves to the undersides of the animals and so get away. As he sails off with his men, Odysseus boastfully reveals his real name, an act of
hubris that was to cause problems for him later. Polyphemus prays to his father,
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ...
, for revenge and casts huge rocks towards the ship, which Odysseus barely escapes.
The story reappears in later Classical literature. In ''
Cyclops'', the 5th-century BC play by
Euripides
Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian of classical Athens. Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom any plays have survived in full. Some ancient scholars a ...
, a chorus of satyrs offers comic relief from the grisly story of how Polyphemus is punished for his impious behaviour in not respecting the rites of hospitality. In this play, Polyphemus claims to be a
pederast, revealing to Odysseus that he takes more pleasure in boys than in women, and tries to take the
satyr
In Greek mythology, a satyr ( grc-gre, σάτυρος, sátyros, ), also known as a silenus or ''silenos'' ( grc-gre, σειληνός ), is a male nature spirit with ears and a tail resembling those of a horse, as well as a permanent, exa ...
Silenus
In Greek mythology, Silenus (; grc, Σειληνός, Seilēnós, ) was a companion and tutor to the wine god Dionysus. He is typically older than the satyrs of the Dionysian retinue ('' thiasos''), and sometimes considerably older, in which ...
, who he kept together with his sons as slaves on
Mount Etna in
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, calling him "my
Ganymede". The scene is infused with low comedy, specifically from the chorus, and Polyphemus is made to look silly: he is drunk when he explains his sexual desire, Silenus is too old to play the part of the young lover, and he himself will be subjected to penetration—with the wooden spike. In his Latin epic,
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...
describes how
Aeneas
In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (, ; from ) was a Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons ...
observes blind Polyphemus as he leads his flocks down to the sea. They have encountered
Achaemenides
In the ''Aeneid'' of Virgil, Achaemenides (Greek: Ἀχαιμενίδης ''Akhaimenides'') was a son of Adamastos of Ithaca, and one of Ulysses's crew. He was marooned on Sicily when Ulysses fled the Cyclops Polyphemus, until Aeneas arrived and ...
, who re-tells the story of how Odysseus and his men escaped, leaving him behind. The giant is described as descending to the shore, using a "lopped pine tree" as a walking staff. Once Polyphemus reaches the sea, he washes his oozing, bloody eye socket and groans painfully. Achaemenides is taken aboard Aeneas’ vessel and they cast off with Polyphemus in chase. His great roar of frustration brings the rest of the Cyclopes down to the shore as Aeneas draws away in fear.
Artistic representations
During the seventh century, the potters gave preference to scenes from both epics, ''The Odyssey'' and ''the Iliad'', almost half being that of the blinding of the Cyclops and the ruse by which Odysseus and his men escape. One such episode, on a vase featuring the hero carried beneath a sheep, was used on a 27 drachma Greek postage stamp in 1983. This was a steep drop (to the point of being "insignificant") from the volume of pan-Hellenic pottery discovered from the fifth and sixth centuries, which largely depicted ancient Greek mythology: scenes from the
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and ...
or deeds from
Heracles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptiv ...
or
Perseus.
The blinding was depicted in life-size sculpture, including a giant Polyphemus, in the
Sperlonga sculptures
The Sperlonga sculptures are a large and elaborate ensemble of ancient sculptures discovered in 1957 in the grounds of the former villa of the Emperor Tiberius at Sperlonga, on the coast between Rome and Naples. As reconstructed, the sculp ...
probably made for the Emperor
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
. This may be an interpretation of an existing composition, and was apparently repeated in variations in later Imperial palaces by
Claudius,
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
and at
Hadrian's Villa.
Of the European painters of the subject, the Flemish
Jacob Jordaens depicted Odysseus escaping from the cave of Polyphemus in 1635 (see gallery
below) and others chose the dramatic scene of the giant casting boulders at the escaping ship. In
Guido Reni's painting of 1639/40 (see above), the furious giant is tugging a boulder from the cliff as Odysseus and his men row out to the ship far below. Polyphemus is portrayed, as it often happens, with two empty eye sockets and his damaged eye located in the middle on his forehead. This convention goes back to Greek statuary and painting, and is reproduced in
Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein's 1802 head and shoulders portrait of the giant (see
below).
Arnold Böcklin pictures the giant as standing on rocks onshore and swinging one of them back as the men row desperately over a surging wave (see
below), while Polyphemus is standing at the top of a cliff in
Jean-Léon Gérôme
Jean-Léon Gérôme (11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was "arguably the world's most famous living artist by 1880." The ra ...
's painting of 1902. He stands poised, having already thrown one stone, which barely misses the ship. The reason for his rage is depicted in
J. M. W. Turner's painting, ''
Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus'' (1829). Here the ship sails forward as the sun breaks free of clouds low on the horizon. The giant himself is an indistinct shape barely distinguished from the woods and smoky atmosphere high above.
Possible origins
Folktales similar to that of Homer's Polyphemus are a widespread phenomenon throughout the ancient world. In 1857,
Wilhelm Grimm
Wilhelm Carl Grimm (also Karl; 24 February 178616 December 1859) was a German author and anthropologist, and the younger brother of Jacob Grimm, of the literary duo the Brothers Grimm.
Life and work
Wilhelm was born in February 1786 in Hanau, ...
collected versions in
Serbian,
Romanian,
Estonian,
Finnish
Finnish may refer to:
* Something or someone from, or related to Finland
* Culture of Finland
* Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland
* Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people
* Finnish cuisine
See also ...
,
Russian
Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including:
*Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
,
German, and others; versions in
Basque
Basque may refer to:
* Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France
* Basque language, their language
Places
* Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France
* Basque Country (autonomous co ...
,
Lappish,
Lithuanian,
Gascon,
Syriac Syriac may refer to:
*Syriac language, an ancient dialect of Middle Aramaic
*Sureth, one of the modern dialects of Syriac spoken in the Nineveh Plains region
* Syriac alphabet
** Syriac (Unicode block)
** Syriac Supplement
* Neo-Aramaic languages a ...
, and
Celtic are also known. More than two hundred different versions have been identified, from around twenty five nations, covering a geographic region extending from Iceland, Ireland, England, Portugal and Africa to Arabia, Turkey, Russia, and Korea. The consensus of current modern scholarship is that these "Polyphemus legends" preserve traditions predating Homer.
An example of such a story is one from
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
, in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
, which describes several brothers held prisoner by a giant one-eyed shepherd called "One-eye". After all but two of the brothers are roasted on a spit and eaten, the remaining two take the spit, heat it red hot, and stab it into the giant's eye. As One-eye let his flock out of their pen, he felt each sheep as it passed between his legs, but the two brothers were able to escape by covering themselves with a sheepskin.
Polyphemus and Galatea
Ancient sources
Philoxenus of Cythera
Writing more than three centuries after the
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Iliad'', th ...
is thought to have been composed,
Philoxenus of Cythera
Philoxenus of Cythera ( el, Φιλόξενος ὁ Κυθήριος; c. 435/4 – 380/79 BC) was a Greek dithyrambic poet, an exponent of the "New Music". He was one of the most important dithyrambic poets of ancient Greece.
Life
A few details of ...
took up the myth of Polyphemus in his poem ''Cyclops'' or ''Galatea''. The poem was written to be performed as a
dithyramb, of which only fragments have survived, and was perhaps the first to provide a female love interest for the Cyclops. The object of Polyphemus’ romantic desire is a sea nymph named
Galatea
Galatea is an ancient Greek name meaning "she who is milk-white".
Galatea, Galathea or Gallathea may refer to:
In mythology
* Galatea (Greek myth), three different mythological figures
In the arts
* ''Aci, Galatea e Polifemo'', cantata by H ...
. In the poem, Polyphemus is not a cave dwelling, monstrous brute, as in the ''Odyssey'', but instead he is rather like Odysseus himself in his vision of the world: He has weaknesses, he is adept at literary criticism, and he understands people.
The date of composition for the ''Cyclops'' is not precisely known, but it must be prior to 388 BC, when
Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion ( la, Cydathenaeum), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his for ...
parodied it in his comedy ''
Plutus
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Plutus (; grc-gre, Πλοῦτος, Ploûtos, wealth) is the god and the personification of wealth, and the son of the goddess of agriculture Demeter and the mortal Iasion.
Family
Plutus is most common ...
'' (''Wealth''); and probably after 406 BC, when
Dionysius I became tyrant of
Syracuse. Philoxenus lived in that city and was the court poet of Dionysius I. According to ancient commentators, either because of his frankness regarding Dionysius' poetry, or because of a conflict with the tyrant over a female
aulos player named Galatea, Philoxenus was imprisoned in the quarries and had there composed his ''Cyclops'' in the manner of a ''
Roman à clef
''Roman à clef'' (, anglicised as ), French for ''novel with a key'', is a novel about real-life events that is overlaid with a façade of fiction. The fictitious names in the novel represent real people, and the "key" is the relationship be ...
'', where the poem's characters, Polyphemus, Odysseus and Galatea, were meant to represent Dionysius, Philoxenus, and the aulos-player. Philoxenus had his Polyphemus perform on the
cithara, a professional
lyre requiring great skill. The Cyclops playing such a sophisticated and fashionable instrument would have been quite a surprising juxtaposition for Philoxenus' audience.
Philoxenus' ''Cyclops'' is also referred to in
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
's ''
Poetics'' in a section that discusses representations of people in tragedy and comedy, citing as comedic examples the ''Cyclops'' of both
Timotheus
Timotheus is a masculine male name. It is a latinized version of the Greek name (Timόtheos) mmeaning "one who honours God", from τιμή "honour" and θεός "god"., . The English version '' Timothy'' (and its variations) is a common name in ...
and Philoxenus.
Aristophanes
The text of Aristophanes' last extant play ''Plutus'' (''Wealth'') has survived with almost all of its choral odes missing. What remains shows Aristophanes (as he does to some extent in all his plays) parodying a contemporary literary work — in this case Philoxenus’ ''Cyclops''. While making fun of literary aspects of Philoxenus' dithyramb, Aristophanes is at the same time commenting on musical developments occurring in the fourth century BC, developing themes that run through the whole play. It also contains lines and phrases taken directly from the ''Cyclops''.
The slave Cario, tells the chorus that his master has brought home with him the god Wealth, and because of this they will all now be rich. The chorus wants to dance for joy, so Cario takes the lead by parodying Philoxenus' ''Cyclops''. As a solo performer leading a chorus that sings and dances, Cario recreates the form of a dithyramb. He first casts himself in the role of Polyphemus while assigning to the chorus the roles of sheep and goats, at the same time imitating the sound of a lyre: "And now I wish — threttanello! — to imitate the Cyclops and, swinging my feet to and fro like this, to lead you in the dance. But come on, children, shout and shout again the songs of bleating sheep and smelly goats." The chorus, however, does not want to play sheep and goats, they would rather be Odysseus and his men, and they threaten to blind Cario (as had Odysseus the drunken Cyclops) with a wooden stake.
Hellenistic pastoral poets
The romantic element, originated by Philoxenus, was revived by later Hellenistic poets, including
Theocritus
Theocritus (; grc-gre, Θεόκριτος, ''Theokritos''; born c. 300 BC, died after 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry.
Life
Little is known of Theocritus beyond what can be inferred from h ...
,
Callimachus
Callimachus (; ) was an ancient Greek poet, scholar and librarian who was active in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. A representative of Ancient Greek literature of the Hellenistic period, he wrote over 800 literary works in a wide varie ...
,
Hermesianax,
and
Bion of Smyrna
Bion of Smyrna (; grc-gre, Βίων ὁ Σμυρναῖος, ''gen''.: Βίωνος) was a Greek bucolic poet.
Life
He was a native of the city of Smyrna and flourished about 100 BC. Most of his work is lost. There remain 17 fragments ( ...
.
Theocritus
Theocritus (; grc-gre, Θεόκριτος, ''Theokritos''; born c. 300 BC, died after 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry.
Life
Little is known of Theocritus beyond what can be inferred from h ...
is credited with creating the genre of
pastoral poetry. His works are titled ''Idylls'' and of these
Idyll XI tells the story of the Cyclops' love for Galatea. Though the character of Polyphemus derives from Homer, there are notable differences. Where Homer's Cyclops was beastly and wicked, Theocritus' is absurd, lovesick and comic. Polyphemus loves the sea nymph Galatea, but she rejects him because of his ugliness. However, in a borrowing from Philoxenus’ poem, Polyphemus has discovered that music will heal lovesickness, and so he plays the
panpipes
A pan flute (also known as panpipes or syrinx) is a musical instrument based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting of multiple pipes of gradually increasing length (and occasionally girth). Multiple varieties of pan flutes have been ...
and sings of his woes, for "I am skilled in piping as no other Cyclops here”. His longing is to overcome the antithetic elements that divide them, he of earth and she of water:
The love of the mismatched pair was later taken up by other pastoral poets. The same trope of music being the cure for love was introduced by Callimachus in his Epigram 47: "How excellent was the charm that Polyphemus discovered for the lover. By Earth, the Cyclops was no fool!"
A fragment of a lost idyll by Bion also portrays Polyphemus declaring his undying love for Galatea. Referring back to this, an elegy on Bion's death that was once attributed to
Moschus takes the theme further in a piece of
hyperbole
Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
. Where Polyphemus had failed, the poet declares, Bion's greater artistry had won Galatea's heart, drawing her from the sea to tend his herds. This reflected the situation in
Idyll VI of Theocritus. There two herdsmen engage in a musical competition, one of them playing the part of Polyphemus, who asserts that since he has adopted the ruse of ignoring Galatea, she has now become the one who pursues him.
Latin poets
The successful outcome of Polyphemus' love was also alluded to in the course of a 1st-century BC love elegy on the power of music by the Latin poet
Propertius. Listed among the examples he mentions is that "Even Galatea, it's true, below wild Etna, wheeled her brine-wet horses, Polyphemus, to your songs." The division of contrary elements between the land-based monster and the sea nymph, lamented in Theocritus’ Idyll 11, is brought into harmony by this means.
While
Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...
's treatment of the story that he introduced into the ''
Metamorphoses
The ''Metamorphoses'' ( la, Metamorphōsēs, from grc, μεταμορφώσεις: "Transformations") is a Latin narrative poem from 8 CE by the Roman poet Ovid. It is considered his ''magnum opus''. The poem chronicles the history of the ...
'' is reliant on the idylls of Theocritus, it is complicated by the introduction of Acis, who has now become the focus of Galatea's love.
There is also a reversion to the Homeric vision of the hulking monster, whose attempt to play the tender shepherd singing love songs is made a source of humour by Galatea:
In his own character, too, Polyphemus mentions the transgression of heavenly laws that once characterised his actions and is now overcome by Galatea: "I, who scorn Jove and his heaven and his piercing lightning bolt, submit to you alone."
Galatea listens to the love song of Polyphemus while she and Acis lie hidden by a rock. In his song, Polyphemus scolds her for not loving him in return, offers her rustic gifts and points out what he considers his best feature — the single eye that is, he boasts, the size of a great shield. But when Polyphemus discovers the hiding place of the lovers, he becomes enraged with jealousy. Galatea, terrified, dives into the ocean, while the Cyclops wrenches off a piece of the mountain and crushes Acis with it. But on her return, Galatea changes her dead lover into the spirit of the Sicilian river Acis.
First-century AD art
That the story sometimes had a more successful outcome for Polyphemus is also attested in the arts. In one of the murals rescued from the site of
Pompeii, Polyphemus is pictured seated on a rock with a
cithara (rather than a syrinx) by his side, holding out a hand to receive a love letter from Galatea, which is carried by a winged
Cupid riding on a dolphin.
In another fresco, also dating from the 1st century AD, the two stand locked in a naked embrace (see
below). From their union came the ancestors of various wild and war-like races. According to some accounts, the
Celts
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...
(Galati in Latin, Γάλλοi in Greek) were descended from their son Galatos, while
Appian
Appian of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἀππιανὸς Ἀλεξανδρεύς ''Appianòs Alexandreús''; la, Appianus Alexandrinus; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who flourished during the reigns of Emperors of Rome Trajan, Ha ...
credited them with three children,
Celtus
In Greek mythology, Celtus (; grc, Κέλτος ''Keltos'' ) may refer to three various figures:
* Celtus, the eponymous progenitor of the Celts. There are two alternative traditions. One, found in Appian's ''Illyrian Wars'', holds that Celtus w ...
,
Illyrius and
Galas, from whom descend the
Celts
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...
, the
Illyrians
The Illyrians ( grc, Ἰλλυριοί, ''Illyrioi''; la, Illyrii) were a group of Indo-European-speaking peoples who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan populations, a ...
and the
Gauls
The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They s ...
respectively.
Lucian
There are indications that Polyphemus’ courtship also had a more successful outcome in one of the dialogues of
Lucian of Samosata. There Doris, one of Galatea's sisters, spitefully congratulates her on her love conquest and she defends Polyphemus. From the conversation, one understands that Doris is chiefly jealous that her sister has a lover. Galatea admits that she does not love Polyphemus but is pleased to have been chosen by him in preference to all her companions.
Nonnus
That their conjunction was fruitful is also implied in a later Greek epic from the turn of the 5th century AD. In the course of his ''
Dionysiaca'',
Nonnus
Nonnus of Panopolis ( grc-gre, Νόννος ὁ Πανοπολίτης, ''Nónnos ho Panopolítēs'', 5th century CE) was the most notable Greek epic poet of the Imperial Roman era. He was a native of Panopolis (Akhmim) in the Egyptian Theb ...
gives an account of the wedding of
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ...
and Beroe, at which the
Nereid
In Greek mythology, the Nereids or Nereides ( ; grc, Νηρηΐδες, Nērēḯdes; , also Νημερτές) are sea nymphs (female spirits of sea waters), the 50 daughters of the ' Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanid Doris, sisters ...
"Galatea twangled a marriage dance and restlessly twirled in capering step, and she sang the marriage verses, for she had learnt well how to sing, being taught by Polyphemos with a shepherd's
syrinx."
Later European interpretations
Literature and music
During
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
and
Baroque times Ovid's story emerged again as a popular theme. In Spain
Luis de Góngora y Argote
Luis is a given name. It is the Spanish form of the originally Germanic name or . Other Iberian Romance languages have comparable forms: (with an accent mark on the i) in Portuguese and Galician, in Aragonese and Catalan, while is archaic ...
wrote the much admired narrative poem, ''Fábula de
Polifemo y Galatea'', published in 1627. It is particularly noted for its depiction of landscape and for the sensual description of the love of Acis and Galatea. It was written in homage to an earlier and rather shorter narrative with the same title by Luis Carillo y Sotomayor (1611). The story was also given operatic treatment in the very popular
zarzuela of
Antoni Lliteres Carrió (1708). The atmosphere here is lighter and enlivened by the inclusion of the clowns Momo and Tisbe.
In France the story was condensed to the fourteen lines of
Tristan L'Hermite's sonnet ''Polyphème en furie'' (1641). In it the giant expresses his fury upon viewing the loving couple, ultimately throwing the huge rock that kills Acis and even injures Galatea. Later in the century,
Jean-Baptiste Lully composed his opera
Acis et Galatée (1686) on the theme.
In Italy
Giovanni Bononcini
Giovanni Bononcini (or Buononcini) (18 July 1670 – 9 July 1747) (sometimes cited also as Giovanni Battista Bononcini) was an Italian Baroque composer, cellist, singer and teacher, one of a family of string players and composers.
Biography
E ...
composed the one-act opera ''Polifemo'' (1703). Shortly afterwards
George Frideric Handel worked in that country and composed the cantata ''
Aci, Galatea e Polifemo
Aci, Galatea e Polifemo ( HWV 72) is a dramatic cantata—also called a serenata—by George Frideric Handel. It was first performed at Naples on 19 July 1708; the completed score is dated to 16 June 1708. The serenata was commissioned by Duche ...
'' (1708), laying as much emphasis on the part of Polifemo as on the lovers. Written in Italian, Polifemo's deep bass solo ''Fra l'ombre e gl'orrori'' (From horrid shades) establishes his character from the start. After Handel's move to England, he gave the story a new treatment in his
pastoral opera ''
Acis and Galatea'' with an English libretto provided by
John Gay. Initially composed in 1718, the work went through many revisions and was later to be given updated orchestrations by both
Mozart and
Mendelssohn
Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (3 February 18094 November 1847), born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. Mendelssohn's compositions include sym ...
.* As a pastoral work it is suffused with Theocritan atmosphere but largely centres on the two lovers. When Polyphemus declares his love in the lyric “O ruddier than the cherry”, the effect is almost comic. Handel's rival for a while on the London scene,
Nicola Porpora
Nicola (or Niccolò) Antonio Porpora (17 August 16863 March 1768) was an Italian composer and teacher of singing of the Baroque music, Baroque era, whose most famous singing students were the castrati Farinelli and Caffarelli (castrato), Caffarel ...
, also made the story the subject of his opera ''
Polifemo'' (1735).
Later in the century
Joseph Haydn composed ''Acide e Galatea'' (1763) as his first opera while in Vienna. Designed for an imperial wedding, it was given a happy ending centred on the transformation scene after the murder of Acis as the pair declare their undying love.
Johann Gottlieb Naumann
Johann Gottlieb Naumann (17 April 1741 – 23 October 1801) was a German composer, conductor, and Kapellmeister.
Life
Johann Gottlieb Naumann was born in Blasewitz and received his musical training from the teachers at his town school, where he ...
was to turn the story into a comic opera, ''Aci e Galatea'', with the subtitle ''i ciclopi amanti'' (the amorous cyclops). The work was first performed in Dresden in 1801 and its plot was made more complicated by giving Polifemo a companion, Orgonte. There were also two other lovers, Dorinda and Lisia, with Orgonte Lisia's rival for Dorinda's love.
After John Gay's libretto in Britain, it was not until the 19th century that the subject was given further poetical treatment. In 1819 appeared "The Death of Acis" by
Bryan Procter
Bryan Waller Procter (pseud. Barry Cornwall) (21 November 17875 October 1874) was an English poet who served as a Commissioner in Lunacy.
Life and career
Born at Leeds, Yorkshire, he was educated at Harrow School, where he had for contemporaries ...
, writing under the name of Barry Cornwall. A blank verse narrative with lyric episodes, it celebrates the musicianship of Polyphemus, which draws the lovers to expose themselves from their hiding place in a cave and thus brings about the death of Acis. At the other end of the century, there was
Alfred Austin's dramatic poem "Polyphemus", which is set after the murder and transformation of the herdsman. The giant is tortured by hearing the happy voices of Galatea and Acis as they pursue their love duet. Shortly afterwards
Albert Samain
Albert Victor Samain (3 April 185818 August 1900) was a French poet and writer of the Symbolist school.
Life and works
Born in Lille, his family were Flemish and had long lived in the town or its suburbs. At the time of the poet's birth, his fat ...
wrote the 2-act verse drama ''Polyphème'' with the additional character of Lycas, Galatea's younger brother. In this the giant is humanised; sparing the lovers when he discovers them, he blinds himself and wades to his death in the sea. The play was first performed posthumously in 1904 with incidental music by Raymond Bonheur. On this the French composer
Jean Cras based his operatic ‘lyric tragedy’, composed in 1914 and first performed in 1922. Cras took Samain's text almost unchanged, subdividing the play's two acts into four and cutting a few lines from Polyphemus' final speech.
There have also been two Spanish musical items that reference Polyphemus' name.
Reginald Smith Brindle
Reginald Smith Brindle (5 January 1917 – 9 September 2003) was a British composer and writer.
Early life
Smith Brindle was born in Cuerdon, Lancashire, to Robert and Jane Smith Brindle. He began learning the piano at the age of six, and lat ...
's four fragments for guitar, ''El Polifemo de Oro'' (1956), takes its title from
Federico García Lorca
Federico del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús García Lorca (5 June 1898 – 19 August 1936), known as Federico García Lorca ( ), was a Spanish poet, playwright, and theatre director. García Lorca achieved international recognition as an emblemat ...
's poem, “The riddle of the guitar”. That speaks of six dancing maidens (the guitar strings) entranced by ‘a golden Polyphemus’ (the one-eyed sound-hole). The Spanish composer Andres Valero Castells takes the inspiration for his ''Polifemo i Galatea'' from Gongora's work. Originally written for brass band in 2001, he rescored it for orchestra in 2006.
Painting and sculpture
Paintings that include Polyphemus in the story of Acis and Galatea can be grouped according to their themes. Most notably the story takes place within a pastoral landscape in which the figures are almost incidental. This is particularly so in
Nicolas Poussin's 1649 "Landscape with Polyphemus" (see gallery
below) in which the lovers play a minor part in the foreground. To the right, Polyphemus merges with a distant mountain top on which he plays his pipes. In an earlier painting by Poussin from 1630 (now housed at the
Dublin National Gallery) the couple are among several embracing figures in the foreground, shielded from view of Polyphemus, who is playing his flute higher up the slope. Another variation on the theme was painted by
Pietro Dandini
Pietro Dandini (12 April 1646 – 26 November 1712) was an Italian painter of the Baroque period, active mainly in Florence.
Biography
He is also called ''Pier Dandini''. He was the son (or nephew) and pupil of the painter Vincenzo Dandini. P ...
during this period.
An earlier fresco by
Giulio Romano
Giulio Romano (, ; – 1 November 1546), is the acquired name of Giulio Pippi, who was an Italian painter and architect. He was a pupil of Raphael, and his stylistic deviations from High Renaissance classicism help define the sixteenth-cent ...
from 1528 seats Polyphemus against a rocky foreground with a lyre in his raised right hand. The lovers can just be viewed through a gap in the rock that gives onto the sea at the lower right. (1681) represents a seated Polyphemus in his sculpture, except that in his version it is pipes that the giant holds in his lowered hand. Otherwise he has a massive club held across his body and turns to the left to look over his shoulder.
Other paintings take up the Theocritan theme of the pair divided by the elements with which they are identified, land and water. There are a series of paintings, often titled "The Triumph of Galatea", in which the nymph is carried through the sea by her Nereid sisters, while a minor figure of Polyphemus serenades her from the land. Typical examples of this were painted by
François Perrier,
Giovanni Lanfranco and
Jean-Baptiste van Loo.
A whole series of paintings by
Gustave Moreau make the same point in a variety of subtle ways. The giant spies on Galatea through the wall of a sea grotto or emerges from a cliff to adore her sleeping figure (see
below). Again, Polyphemus merges with the cliff where he meditates in the same way that Galatea merges with her element within the grotto in the painting at Musée d'Orsay. The visionary interpretation of the story also finds its echo in
Odilon Redon's 1913 painting ''
The Cyclops'' in which the giant towers over the slope on which Galatea sleeps.
French sculptors have also been responsible for some memorable versions.
Auguste Ottin's separate figures are brought together in an 1866 fountain in the
Luxembourg Garden
The Jardin du Luxembourg (), known in English as the Luxembourg Garden, colloquially referred to as the Jardin du Sénat (Senate Garden), is located in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, France. Creation of the garden began in 1612 when Marie de' ...
. Above is crouched the figure of Polyphemus in weathered bronze, peering down at the white marble group of Acis and Galatea embracing below (see above). A little later
Auguste Rodin made a series of statues, centred on Polyphemus. Originally modelled in clay around 1888 and later cast in bronze, they may have been inspired by Ottin's work.
A final theme is the rage that succeeds the moment of discovery. That is portrayed in earlier paintings of Polyphemus casting a rock at the fleeing lovers, such as those by
Annibale Carracci, Lucas Auger and
Carle van Loo.
Jean-Francois de Troy's 18th-century version combines discovery with aftermath as the giant perched above the lovers turns to wrench up a rock.
Artistic depictions of Polyphemus
Polyphemus and Odysseus
File:Odysseus Polyphemos Cdm Paris 190.jpg, The blinding, Laconian black-figure cup, 565–560 BC
File:Jakob Jordaens 009.jpg, Flemish Jacob Jordaens' depiction of Odysseus escaping from the cave of Polyphemus, 1635.
File:Polyphemus.png, Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein's 1802 head and shoulders portrait of the giant
File:Arnold Böcklin - Odysseus and Polyphemus.jpg, Arnold Bocklin, Polyphemus attempts to crush the boat of the escaping Odysseus,
Polyphemus as lover
File:Affreschi romani - polifemo presenza galatea - pompei.JPG, Polyphemus hears of the arrival of Galatea, Fourth Style, 45–79 AD
File:Mosaic of Polyphemus and Galatea, Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos.JPG, Polyphemus and Galatea, Roman mosaic from the 2nd century AD.
File:Fresco Polyphemus Galatea MAN Naples 27687.jpg, Polyphemus and Galatea in a naked embrace. Fresco. From Pompeii 1st century
File:Poussin - Acis et Galatée - National Gallery Dublin.jpg, Nicolas Poussin, Acis and Galatea concealed from the flute-playing Polyphemus, 1630.
File:Nicolas Poussin - Paysage avec Polyphème.jpg, Nicolas Poussin's pastoral "Landscape with Polyphemus", 1649.
File:Gustave Moreau - Galatée (Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza).jpg, Gustave Moreau, Polyphemus adores the sleeping Galatea, c.1896
File:Odilon Redon - The Cyclops, c. 1914.jpg, Odilon Redon, The Cyclops 1898-1914
Other uses
Polyphemus is mentioned in the "Apprentice" chapter of Albert Pike's ''Morals and Dogma'' (1871), as, within Scottish Rite Freemasonry, Polyphemus is regarded as a symbol for a civilization that harms itself using ill directed blind force.
The
Polyphemus moth is so named because of the large eyespots in the middle of the hind wings.
A species of burrowing tortoise, ''
Gopherus polyphemus
The gopher tortoise (''Gopherus polyphemus'') is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is native to the southeastern United States. The gopher tortoise is seen as a keystone species because it digs burrows that provide s ...
'', is named after Polyphemus because of their both using subterranean retreats.
In
folkloristics
Folklore studies, less often known as folkloristics, and occasionally tradition studies or folk life studies in the United Kingdom, is the branch of anthropology devoted to the study of folklore. This term, along with its synonyms, gained currenc ...
, the episode of the blinding of Polyphemus is also known as ''Polyphemsage'' and classified in the
Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index as ATU 1137, "The Ogre Blinded (Polyphemus)".
See also
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Telemus
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Cyclopean Isles
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
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General references
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Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
, ''
Poetics'' in ''Aristotle in 23 Volumes'', Vol. 23, translated by W.H. Fyfe. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1932
Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
*
*
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* Hackman, O.
Die Polyphemsage in der Volksüberlieferung'. Herlsingfors: Frenckellska tryckeri-aktiebolaget, 1904. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
Further reading
* Brown, Calvin S. “Odysseus and Polyphemus: The Name and the Curse”. In: ''Comparative Literature'' 18, no. 3 (1966): 193–202. https://doi.org/10.2307/1770048.
* Comhaire, Jean L. “Oriental Versions of Polyphem's Myth”. In: ''Anthropological Quarterly'' 31, no. 1 (1958): 21–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/3316559.
* Conrad, Jo Ann. "Polyphemus and
Tepegöz
In Turkic mythology, Tepegoz or Tepegöz is a legendary creature who has only one eye on his forehead – a kind of cyclops. He is an ogre that appears in the Book of Dede Korkut, a famous epic story of the Oghuz Turks.
Etymology
In Turkic langu ...
Revisited A Comparison of the Tales of the Blinding of the One-eyed Ogre in Western and Turkish Traditions". In: ''
Fabula'' 40, no. 3-4 (1999): 278-297. https://doi.org/10.1515/fabl.1999.40.3-4.278
* Conrad, JoAnn. "Polyphem (AaTh 1135–1137)". In: ''Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online''. Edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016
002 https://www.degruyter.com/database/EMO/entry/emo.10.221/html (In German)
* Davies, Malcolm. “The Folk-Tale Origins of the Iliad and Odyssey”. In: ''Wiener Studien'' 115 (2002): 5–43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24751364.
* d’Huy, Julien.
Le conte-type de Polyphème: essai de reconstitution phylogénétique. In: ''Mythologie française'', SMF, 2012, pp. 47–59. ffhalshs-00734458f
* d’Huy, Julien (2015). "Polyphemus, a Palaeolithic Tale?" In: ''The Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter''. Winter 2014–2015, 9: 43–64.
* d'Huy, Julien (2017). "Polyphème en Amérique". In: ''Mythologie française'' 269: 9-11.
* d’Huy, Julien (2019).
Du nouveau sur Polyphème" In: ''Mythologie française'', 277: 15-18.
* Mundy, C. S. “Polyphemus and Tepegöz”. In: ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London 18, no. 2 (1956): 279–302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/609984.
* Peretti, Daniel. “The Ogre Blinded and ‘The Lord of the Rings’.” In: ''Mythlore'' 25, no. 3/4 (97/98) (2007): 133–43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26814613.
* Röhrich, Lutz. "Die mittelalterlichen Redaktionen des Polyphem-Märchens (AT 1137) und ihr Verhältnis zur außerhomerischen Tradition". In: ''
Fabula'' 5, no. Jahresband (1962): 48-71. https://doi.org/10.1515/fabl.1962.5.1.48
External links
Polyphemus and Galatea depicted in statues with a golden harpsichord by Michele Todini, Rome, 1675at
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
Specific artworks discussed above
Polyphemus standing at the top of a cliff, Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1902, at Wikipaintings"Odysseus Deriding Polyphemus", J.M.W. Turner, 1829, at Wikipaintings*
ttp://www.webalice.it/allietarti/Te%20Palace%20Mantua_file/image009.jpg fresco, Giulio Romano, 1528, at WebalicePolyphemus with a massive club, Corneille Van Clève, 1681, at Web Gallery of Art"The Triumph of Galatea", Francois Perrier, at Web Gallery of ArtThe giant spies on Galatea, Gustave Moreau, at MuianPolyphemus meditates, at French Government culture sitestatue of Polyphemus, Auguste Rodin, 1888, at French Government culture siteA wrathful Polyphemus, Annibale Carracci, at Web Gallery of ArtA wrathful Polyphemus, Lucas Auger, at French Government culture siteA_wrathful_Polyphemus,_Jean-Francois_de_Troy,_18th-century,_at_Tribes.html" ;"title="Jean-Francois de Troy">A wrathful Polyphemus, Jean-Francois de Troy
, 18th-century, at Tribes">Jean-Francois de Troy">A wrathful Polyphemus, Jean-Francois de Troy
, 18th-century, at Tribes
{{Authority control
Characters in the Odyssey
Cyclopes
Children of Poseidon
LGBT themes in Greek mythology
Sicilian characters in Greek mythology
ATU 1000-1199