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Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal structure of
plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae excl ...
s. Originally it included plant morphology, the description of the physical form and external structure of plants, but since the mid-20th century plant anatomy has been considered a separate field referring only to internal plant structure. Plant anatomy is now frequently investigated at the cellular level, and often involves the sectioning of tissues and microscopy.


Structural divisions

Some studies of plant anatomy use a systems approach, organized on the basis of the plant's activities, such as nutrient transport, flowering, pollination, embryogenesis or seed development. Others are more classically divided into the following structural categories: : Flower anatomy, including study of the
Calyx Calyx or calyce (plural "calyces"), from the Latin ''calix'' which itself comes from the Ancient Greek ''κάλυξ'' (''kálux'') meaning "husk" or "pod", may refer to: Biology * Calyx (anatomy), collective name for several cup-like structures ...
,
Corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name *Corolla (headgear) A ''corolla'' is an ancient headdress in the form of a small circlet or crown.Androecium The stamen ( plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the fil ...
, and
Gynoecium Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) '' pist ...
: Leaf anatomy, including study of the Epidermis, stomata and Palisade cells : Stem anatomy, including Stem structure and vascular tissues, buds and
shoot apex In botany, a plant shoot consists of any plant stem together with its appendages, leaves and lateral buds, flowering stems, and flower buds. The new growth from seed germination that grows upward is a shoot where leaves will develop. In the sp ...
: Fruit/Seed anatomy, including structure of the Ovule,
Seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...
, Pericarp and Accessory fruit : Wood anatomy, including structure of the
Bark Bark may refer to: * Bark (botany), an outer layer of a woody plant such as a tree or stick * Bark (sound), a vocalization of some animals (which is commonly the dog) Places * Bark, Germany * Bark, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland Arts, e ...
,
Cork Cork or CORK may refer to: Materials * Cork (material), an impermeable buoyant plant product ** Cork (plug), a cylindrical or conical object used to seal a container ***Wine cork Places Ireland * Cork (city) ** Metropolitan Cork, also known as G ...
, Xylem, Phloem, Vascular cambium, Heartwood and sapwood and branch collar : Root anatomy, including structure of the Root, root tip,
endodermis The endodermis is the central, innermost layer of cortex in land plants. It is a cylinder of compact living cells, the radial walls of which are impregnated with hydrophobic substances (Casparian strip) to restrict apoplastic flow of water to th ...


History

About 300 BC Theophrastus wrote a number of plant treatises, only two of which survive, ''
Enquiry into Plants Theophrastus's ''Enquiry into Plants'' or ''Historia Plantarum'' ( grc-gre, Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία, ''Peri phyton historia'') was, along with his mentor Aristotle's ''History of Animals'', Pliny the Elder's '' Natural History'' a ...
'' (Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία), and ''On the Causes of Plants'' (Περὶ φυτῶν αἰτιῶν). He developed concepts of plant morphology and classification, which did not withstand the scientific scrutiny of the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
. A Swiss physician and botanist, Gaspard Bauhin, introduced
binomial nomenclature In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name compos ...
into plant taxonomy. He published ''Pinax theatri botanici'' in 1596, which was the first to use this convention for naming of species. His criteria for classification included natural relationships, or 'affinities', which in many cases were structural. It was in the late 1600s that plant anatomy became refined into a modern science. Italian doctor and microscopist, Marcello Malpighi, was one of the two founders of plant anatomy. In 1671 he published his ''Anatomia Plantarum'', the first major advance in plant physiogamy since
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
. The other founder was the British doctor Nehemiah Grew. He published ''An Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants'' in 1672 and ''The Anatomy of Plants'' in 1682. Grew is credited with the recognition of plant cells, although he called them 'vesicles' and 'bladders'. He correctly identified and described the sexual organs of plants (flowers) and their parts. In the eighteenth century,
Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, ...
established taxonomy based on structure, and his early work was with plant anatomy. While the exact structural level which is to be considered to be scientifically valid for comparison and differentiation has changed with the growth of knowledge, the basic principles were established by Linnaeus. He published his master work, ''Species Plantarum'' in 1753. In 1802, French botanist Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel, published ''Traité d'anatomie et de physiologie végétale'' (''Treatise on Plant Anatomy and Physiology'') establishing the beginnings of the science of plant cytology. In 1812,
Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer (11 February 1766 – 21 August 1827) was a German botanist who made a number of important discoveries in plant anatomy. He was born in Hamburg, the son of a minister, and started out studying theology and the classic ...
published ''Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen'', describing microscopic studies of plant tissues. In 1813 a Swiss botanist, Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, published ''Théorie élémentaire de la botanique'', in which he argued that plant anatomy, not physiology, ought to be the sole basis for plant classification. Using a scientific basis, he established structural criteria for defining and separating plant genera. In 1830, Franz Meyen published ''Phytotomie'', the first comprehensive review of plant anatomy. In 1838 German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden, published ''Contributions to Phytogenesis'', stating, "the lower plants all consist of one cell, while the higher plants are composed of (many) individual cells" thus confirming and continuing Mirbel's work. A German-Polish botanist, Eduard Strasburger, described the mitotic process in plant cells and further demonstrated that new cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other pre-existing nuclei. His ''Studien über Protoplasma'' was published in 1876. Gottlieb Haberlandt, a German botanist, studied plant physiology and classified plant tissue based upon function. On this basis, in 1884 he published ''Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie'' (''Physiological Plant Anatomy'') in which he described twelve types of tissue systems (absorptive, mechanical, photosynthetic, etc.). British paleobotanists
Dunkinfield Henry Scott Dr Dukinfield Henry Scott FRS HFRSE LLD (28 November 1854 – 29 January 1934) was a British botanist. Biography Scott was born in London on 28 November 1854, the fifth and youngest son of architect Sir George Gilbert Scott and his wife Ca ...
and
William Crawford Williamson William Crawford Williamson (24 November 1816 – 23 June 1895) was an English Naturalist and Palaeobotanist. Early life Williamson was born at Scarborough, North Yorkshire, the son of John Williamson, and Elizabeth Crawford. His father, ...
described the structures of fossilized plants at the end of the nineteenth century. Scott's ''Studies in Fossil Botany'' was published in 1900. Following Charles Darwin's ''Origin of Species'' a Canadian botanist, Edward Charles Jeffrey, who was studying the comparative anatomy and phylogeny of different vascular plant groups, applied the theory to plants using the form and structure of plants to establish a number of evolutionary lines. He published his ''The Anatomy of Woody Plants'' in 1917. The growth of comparative plant anatomy was spearheaded by British botanist Agnes Arber. She published ''Water Plants: A Study of Aquatic Angiosperms'' in 1920, ''Monocotyledons: A Morphological Study'' in 1925, and ''The Gramineae: A Study of Cereal, Bamboo and Grass'' in 1934. Following
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
,
Katherine Esau Katherine Esau (3 April 1898 – 4 June 1997) was a German-American botanist who received the National Medal of Science for her work on plant anatomy. Personal life and education Esau was born on 3 April 1898 in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire ...
published, ''Plant Anatomy'' (1953), which became the definitive textbook on plant structure in North American universities and elsewhere, it was still in print as of 2006. She followed up with her ''Anatomy of seed plants'' in 1960.


See also

* Plant morphology * Plant physiology *
Anatomy Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having i ...


References


Further reading


General

* Crang, R.C.; Lyons-Sobaski, S.; Wise, R.R. (2018) ''Plant Anatomy: A Concept-Based Approach to the Study of Seed Plants''. Springer, New York, 725 pp. * Eames, Arthur Johnson; MacDaniels, Laurence H. (1947). ''An Introduction to Plant Anatomy'' 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York
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(1st ed., 1925
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. * Esau, Katherine (1965). ''Plant Anatomy'' 2nd ed. Wiley, New York. * Meicenheimer, R. ''History of Plant Anatomy''. Miami University


Specialized

* Cutler, D. F.; Gregory, M.; Rudall, P. (eds.) (1960-2014). ''Anatomy of the Monocotyledons''. 10 vols. Oxford University Press. * Goffinet, B.; Buck, W. R.; Shaw, J. (2008). Morphology, anatomy, and classification of the Bryophyta. In: Goffinet, B.; Shaw, J. (eds.). ''Bryophyte Biology'', 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–138 (1st ed., 2000
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. * Jeffrey, E. C. (1917). ''The anatomy of woody plants''. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press
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* Metcalfe, C.R.; Chalk, L. (1957). ''Anatomy of the Dicotyledons: Leaves, stem and wood in relation to taxonomy, with notes on economic uses''. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1500 pp.
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(2nd ed., 1979-1998, 4 vols.). * Schoute, J. C. (1938). Anatomy. In: Verdoorn, F. (ed.). ''Manual of Pteridology''. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. pp. 65–104
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* Schweingruber, F. H.; Börner, A.; Schulze, E. (2011-2013). ''Atlas of Stem Anatomy in Herbs, Shrubs and Trees''. Vol. 1, 2011
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Vol. 2, 2013
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Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.


External links



* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20070704063752/http://utc.usu.edu/factsheets/CarexFSF/glossary.htm Botanical Visual Glossary
Plant anatomy glossary
University of Rhode Island {{Authority control Branches of botany