Types
The category "phrasal verb" is mainly used in English as a second language teaching. Some textbooks restrict the term to verbs with particles in order to distinguish phrasal verbs from prepositional verbs. Others include verbs with prepositions under the same category and distinguish particle verbs and prepositional verbs as two types of phrasal verbs. Since a prepositional phrase can complement a particle verb, some explanations distinguish three types of phrasal verb constructions depending on whether the verb combines with a particle, a preposition phrase, or both, though the third type is not a distinct linguistic phenomenon.Verb + particle (particle verbs)
Particle verbs (phrasal verbs in the strict sense) are two-word verbs composed of a simple verb and a particle extension that modifies its meaning. The particle is thus integrally collocated with the verb. In older grammars, the particle was usually analyzed as an adverb. ::a. ''Kids grow up so fast these days'' ::b. ''You shouldn't give in so easily.'' In these examples, the common verbs ''grow'' and ''give'' are expanded by the particles ''up'' and ''in''. The resulting two-word verbs are single semantic units, so ''grow up'' and ''give in'' are listed as discrete entries in modern dictionaries. These verbs can be transitive or intransitive. If they are transitive, i.e. if they have anVerb + preposition (prepositional verbs)
Many verbs can be complemented by a prepositional phrase that functions adverbially: ::a. Don't stand on the table. This construction is sometimes also taught as a phrasal verb, but only when the combination of verb and preposition is not intuitive to the learner: ::b. Don't stand on ceremony. Further examples: ::c. I ran into an old friend. – ''into'' is a preposition that introduces the prepositional phrase ''into an old friend''. ::d. She takes after her mother. – ''after'' is a preposition that introduces the prepositional phrase ''after her mother''. ::e. Sam passes for a linguist. – ''for'' is a preposition that introduces the prepositional phrase ''for a linguist''. ::f. You should stand by your friend. – ''by'' is a preposition that introduces the prepositional phrase ''by your friend''Verb + particle + preposition (particle-prepositional verbs)
Sometimes both phenomena can occur in the same context. ::a. Who can put up with that? – ''up'' is a particle and ''with'' is a preposition. ::b. She looks forward to a rest. – ''forward'' is a particle and ''to'' is a preposition. ::c. The other tanks bore down on my Panther. – ''down'' is a particle and ''on'' is a preposition. ::d. They really teed off on me. – ''off'' is a particle and ''on'' is a preposition. ::e. We loaded up on snacks. – ''up'' is a particle and ''on'' is a preposition ::f. Susan had to sit in for me. – ''in'' is a particle and ''for'' is a preposition. In general, the discrete meanings associated with ''phrasal verbs'' cannot be readily understood solely by construing the sum of their respective parts: the meaning of ''pick up'' is distinct from the various meanings of ''pick'' and ''up'', and may acquire disparate meanings depending on its contextual usage. Similarly, the meaning of ''hang out'' is not conspicuously related to a particular definition of ''hang'' or ''out''.Distinguishing phrasal verb types
When a particle verb is transitive, it may be difficult to distinguish it from a prepositional verb. A simple diagnostic which works in many cases is to consider whether it is possible to shift the preposition/particle to after the noun. An English preposition can never follow its noun, so if we can change ''verb - P - noun'' to ''verb - noun - P'', then P cannot be a preposition and must be particle. But even with a particle verb, shifting the particle is not always possible, for example if it is followed by a pronoun instead of a noun, or if there is a fixed collocation. Another diagnostic is to think about where the instinctive division would be if we had to take a breath in the middle of the phrase. A particle would naturally be grouped with the preceding verb, a preposition with the following noun phrase. In the following examples, an asterisk indicates an impossible form. ::a. You can bank on Susan. – ''on'' is a preposition. The natural division is "bank , on Susan". ::b. *You can bank Susan on. – The preposition cannot follow its noun. ::a. You can take on Susan. – ''on'' is a particle. The natural division is "take on , Susan". ::b. You can take Susan on. – The particle can follow the object of the particle verb. ::a. He got over the situation. – ''over'' is a preposition. The natural division is "get , over the situation". ::b. *He got the situation over. – The preposition cannot follow its noun. ::a. He thought over the situation. – ''over'' is a particle. The natural division is "think over , the situation". ::b. He thought the situation over. – The particle can follow the object of the particle verb. Another test would be to place the verb in a w-question (''which? who?'') or a relative clause and consider whether the particle/preposition can be placed before the question word or relative pronoun. While this may sound antiquated, it is always possible with a preposition, never with a particle. (For more on an osolete prescriptive rule about this, see preposition stranding.) ::a. Who can you bank on? Susan is someone (who) you can bank on. – ''on'' is a preposition in terminal position. ::b. On whom can you bank? Susan is a person on whom you can bank. – The preposition can go before the w-words. ::a. Who can I take on? Susan is someone (who) any employer could take on. – ''on'' is a particle in terminal position. ::b. *On whom can I take? *Susan is a person on whom any employer could take. – The particle cannot be moved. While this distinction is of interest to linguists, it is not necessarily important for language learners, and some textbooks recommend learning phrasal verbs as whole collocations without considering types.Terminology
The terminology of phrasal verbs is inconsistent. Modern theories of syntax tend to use the term ''phrasal verb'' to denote particle verbs only; they do not view prepositional verbs as phrasal verbs. In contrast, literature in English as a second or foreign language ESL/EFL, tends to employ the term ''phrasal verb'' to encompass both prepositional and particle verbs. Note that prepositions and adverbs can have a literal meaning that may be spatial or orientational. Many English verbs interact with a preposition or an adverb to yield a meaning that can be readily understood from the constituent elements. ::He talked up the proposal. ::She opened the shutters and looked outside. These more readily understandable combinations are not usually regarded as phrasal verbs. Furthermore, the same words that occur as a genuine phrasal verb can also appear in other contexts, as in: ::1(a) She looked up his address. Phrasal verb. ::1(b) She looked his address up. Phrasal verb. ::2(a) When he heard the crash, he looked up. Not a phrasal verb. ::2(b) When he heard the crash, he looked up at the sky. Not a phrasal verb. The terminology used to denote the particle is also inconsistent. Sometimes it is called an adverb and at other times an ''intransitive prepositional phrase''. The inconsistent use of terminology in these areas may be a source of confusion regarding what qualifies as a phrasal verb and the status of the particle or a preposition. The term ''phrasal verb'' was first used by Logan Pearsall Smith, in ''Words and Idioms'' (1925), in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested the term to him. The value of this choice and its alternatives (including ''Shifting
A complex aspect of phrasal verbs concerns the syntax of particle verbs that are transitive (as discussed and illustrated above). These allow some variability, depending on the relative weight of the constituents involved. Shifting often occurs when the object is very light, e.g. ::a. Fred chatted up the girl with red hair. – Canonical word order ::b. Fred chatted her up. – Shifting occurs because the definite pronoun ''her'' is very light. ::c. Fred chatted the girl up. - ''The girl'' is also very light. ::d. ?Fred chatted the redhead up. - A three-syllable object can appear in either position for many speakers. ::e. ??Fred chatted the girl with red hair up. – Shifting is unlikely unless it is sufficiently motivated by the weight of the constituents involved. ::a. They dropped off the kids from that war zone. – Canonical word order ::b. They dropped them off. – Shifting occurs because the definite pronoun ''them'' is very light. ::c. ??They dropped the kids from that war zone off. – Shifting is unlikely unless it is sufficiently motivated by the weight of the constituents involved. ::a. Mary made up a really entertaining story. – Canonical word order ::b. Mary made it up. – Shifting occurs because the definite pronoun ''it'' is very light. ::c. ??Mary made a really entertaining story up. – Shifting is unlikely unless it is sufficiently motivated by the weight of the constituents involved. Shifting occurs between two (or more) sister constituents that appear on the same side of their head. The lighter constituent shifts leftward and the heavier constituent shifts rightward, and this happens to accommodate the relative weight of the two. Dependency grammar trees are again used to illustrate the point: :: The trees illustrate when shifting can occur. English sentence structures that grow down and to the right are easier to process. There is a consistent tendency to place heavier constituents to the right, as is evident in the a-trees. Shifting is possible when the resulting structure does not contradict this tendency, as is evident in the b-trees. Note again that the particle verb constructions (in orange) qualify as catenae in both the a- and b-trees. Shifting does not alter this fact.Similar constructions in other languages
Prepositional verbs are very common in many languages, though they would not necessarily be analyzed as a distinct verb type: they are simply verbs followed by prepositional phrases. By contrast, particle verbs are much rarer in cross-language comparison. Middle English particle verbs developed fromCompounding
An extension of the concept of ''phrasal verb'' occurs viaSee also
* Lexical unit * Adverbial phrase * Verb phrase * Collocation * Ergative verbReferences
Literature cited
* * * (Cited from the revised ed. 1940). * * * * * * * *Further reading
*Adger, D. 2003. ''Core syntax: A minimalist approach''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. *Allerton, D. 2006. “Verbs and their satellites”, in ''The Handbook of Linguistics''. Eds. B. Aarts & A. McMahaon. Malden, M.: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 126–49. *Farrell, P. 2005. “English verb-preposition constructions: Constituency and order”, ''Language'', 81(1): 96-137. *Haiden, M. 2006. “Verb particle constructions”, in ''The Blackwell companion to syntax'', vol. 5. Eds. M. Everaert & H. van Riemsdijk. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 344–75. *Juraffsky, D. and J. Martin. 2000. ''Speech and language processing''. Dorling Kindersley, India: Pearson Education. *Huddleston, R. and G. Pullum 2002. ''The Cambridge grammar of the English language''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. *Knowles, M. and R Moon. 2006. ''Introducing metaphor''. London: Routledge, 2006. *Long, T. (ed.). 1979. ''Longman dictionary of English idioms''. Longman Group Limited. *''Macmillan phrasal verbs plus dictionary''. 2005 Oxford: Macmillan Education 2005. *McCarthy M. and F. O'dell. 2007. ''English phrasal verbs in use''. Cambridge University Press. *Osborne, T. and T. Groß 2012. “Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar”, ''Cognitive Linguistics'' 23, 1: 163–214. *''Oxford phrasal verbs dictionary''. 2001. *Tallerman, M. 1998. ''Understanding syntax''. London: Arnold.External links