The Phlebotominae are a subfamily of the family Psychodidae. In several countries, their common name is sandfly; but that name is also applied to other flies. The Phlebotominae include many

genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...

of blood-feeding (

hematophagous Hematophagy (sometimes spelled haematophagy or hematophagia) is the practice by certain animals of feeding on blood (from the Greek words αἷμα ' "blood" and φαγεῖν ' "to eat"). Since blood is a fluid tissue rich in nutritious p ...

) flies, including the primary vectors of

leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by parasites of the trypanosome genus '' Leishmania''. It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies, ''Phlebotomus'' and ''Lutzomyia'', and occurs most freq ...

bartonellosis Bartonellosis is an infectious disease produced by bacteria of the genus ''Bartonella''. ''Bartonella'' species cause diseases such as Carrión's disease, trench fever, cat-scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, chronic bac ...

and

pappataci fever Pappataci fever (also known as Phlebotomus fever and, somewhat confusingly, sandfly fever and three-day fever) is a vector-borne febrile arboviral infection caused by three serotypes of Phlebovirus. It occurs in subtropical regions of the East ...

. In the

New World The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...

, leishmaniasis is spread by sand flies in the genus ''

Lutzomyia ''Lutzomyia'' is a genus of phlebotomine sand flies consisting of nearly 400 species, at least 33 of which have medical importance as vectors of human disease. Species of the genus ''Lutzomyia'' are found only in the New World, distributed in ...

'', which commonly live in caves, where their main hosts are bats. In the

Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by thei ...

, sand flies in the genus ''

Phlebotomus ''Phlebotomus'' is a genus of "sand flies" in the Diptera family Psychodidae. In the past, they have sometimes been considered to belong in a separate family, Phlebotomidae, but this alternative classification has not gained wide acceptance. ...

'' spread leishmaniasis. Phlebotomine females, and only females, suck blood from various

mammal Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur ...

reptile Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates ( lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalia ...

s and

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...

s. Some

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...

are selective, whereas others bite any suitable host they find. Some species can produce one clutch of eggs before their first blood meal; such females are said to practise autogenous or partly autogenous reproduction. Other species need a blood meal before they can produce any eggs at all; they are said to practise

anautogenous In entomology, anautogeny is a reproductive strategy in which an adult female insect must eat a particular sort of meal (generally vertebrate blood) before laying eggs in order for her eggs to mature. This behavior is most common among diptera ...

reproduction. As far as is known, all species need a blood meal for every following clutch of eggs.

Protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...

s and other

nutrient A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excre ...

s in the blood they eat enable the female to produce the proteins and fats necessary for them to produce eggs after using up their bodily food stores. In feeding on blood, the flies use their mouthparts to start the host bleeding. They then suck up the exposed blood. Like practically all blood-feeding parasites, they inject biochemicals that inhibit blood clotting, plus some that stimulate host mast cells to produce

histamine Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses, as well as regulating physiological functions in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and uterus. Since histamine was discover ...

; this distends

capillary vessel A capillary is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (μm) in diameter. Capillaries are composed of only the tunica intima, consisting of a thin wall of simple squamous endothelial cells. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: ...

s, thereby promoting blood flow. One blood meal can support the production of about 100 eggs. Females lay their eggs in humid soil rich in organic matter. Laboratory colonies of various phlebotomine sand flies species have been established for experimental study. Sand flies are small; a body size of about 3mm in length is typical for many species, which aids them in escaping notice. Their bite is not always felt, but leaves a small round, reddish bump that starts itching hours or days later. Use of insect repellent is recommended in areas where sand flies are present.

Distribution

Phlebotomine sand flies can be found between the latitudes 50°N and 40°S, but are absent from New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.

Health concerns

As sand fly females suck blood from

vertebrate Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () ( chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with ...

animals, including

human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, cultu ...

s, they can transmit

, arboviruses and

Prevention of sand fly-borne diseases

Both sand fly sexes are found to consume

plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae excl ...

-derived

sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or do ...

meals as a source of energy, and certain plants upon which sand flies feed can shorten their life or reduce their capacity for transmitting leishmaniasis. Therefore, the structure of plant communities is found to influence the transmission dynamics of sand fly-borne

disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...

s. A

next-generation sequencing Massive parallel sequencing or massively parallel sequencing is any of several high-throughput approaches to DNA sequencing using the concept of massively parallel processing; it is also called next-generation sequencing (NGS) or second-generation ...

(NGS)–based assay for determining the source of sand fly plant meals, based upon the chloroplast DNA gene ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase large chain ('' rbcL''), found the predilection of several sand fly species, vectors of leishmaniasis in different parts of the world, prefer feeding on '' Cannabis sativa''. The plant DNA detected in sand flies was from plant cells damaged by their mouthparts as they pierced plant tissues to reach the phloem. Pollinator insects, including mosquitoes, are attracted to plants that emit volatile

molecule A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and b ...

s such as

terpene Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n > 1. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes ...

, and sixty-eight volatile compounds were detected and partially characterized in

pollen Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametop ...

and vegetative parts of ''Cannabis sativa'' by GC-MS. As cannabinoids from ''C. sativa'' exhibit antimicrobial activity against some

bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were am ...

and

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...

, and a potent antileishmanial, and since thriving gut microbiomes are crucial for the development of ''

Leishmania ''Leishmania'' is a parasitic protozoan, a single-celled organism of the genus '' Leishmania'' that are responsible for the disease leishmaniasis. They are spread by sandflies of the genus ''Phlebotomus'' in the Old World, and of the genus ' ...

'' infections in the sand fly gut, a microbicidal effect could harm the

infection An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable di ...

s. Therefore, a novel approach for controlling blood-sucking mosquitoes and sand flies could be to exploit their plant feeding habit by utilizing attractive toxic sugar baits ( ATSBs) that emit

olfactory The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special sense through which smells (or odors) are perceived. The sense of smell has many functions, including detecting desirable foods, hazards, and pheromones, and plays a role in taste. In humans, ...

cues to attract the sand flies and mosquitoes through the addition of ''C. sativa'' plant extracts, augmenting the efficacy of ATSBs for controlling sugar-questing disease vectors.

Genera

*'' Australophlebotomus''

Theodor Theodor is a masculine given name. It is a German form of Theodore. It is also a variant of Teodor. List of people with the given name Theodor * Theodor Adorno, (1903–1969), German philosopher * Theodor Aman, Romanian painter * Theodor Blueger, ...

, 1948 *'' Bichromomyia'' Artemiev, 1991 *'' Brumptomyia'' França & Parrot, 1921 (Mexico to South America) *'' Chinius'' Leng, 1985 (2 species: China, Thailand) *'' Dampfomyia'' Addis, 1945 *'' Datzia'' Stebner ''et al.''2015 (Burmese amber, Cenomanian) *'' Deanemyia'' Galati, 1995 *'' Evandromyia'' Mangabeira, 1941 *'' Edentomyia'' Galati, Andrade-Filho, da Silva & Falcão, 2003 (Brazil) *'' Expapillata'' Galati, 1995 *'' Hertigia'' Fairchild, 1949 *'' Idiophlebotomus'' Quate & Fairchild, 1961 *'' Libanophlebotomus'' Azar et al. 1999

Lebanese amber Lebanese amber is fossilized resin found in Lebanon and southwest Syria. It dates back approximately 130-125 million years to the Barremian of the Early Cretaceous. It formed on what was then the northern coast of Gondwana, believed to be a tropica ...

Barremian The Barremian is an age in the geologic timescale (or a chronostratigraphic stage) between 129.4 ± 1.5 Ma (million years ago) and 121.4 ± 1.0 Ma). It is a subdivision of the Early Cretaceous Epoch (or Lower Cretaceous Series). It is preceded ...

*''

'' França, 1924 (North and South America) *'' Mandalayia'' Stebner ''et al.''2015 (Burmese amber, Cenomanian) *'' Martinsmyia'' Galati, 1995 *'' Mesophlebotomites'' Azar et al. 1999 Lebanese amber, Barremian *'' Micropygomyia'' Barretto, 1962 *'' Migonemyia'' Galati, 1995 *'' Nyssomyia'' Barretto, 1962 *'' Oligodontomyia'' Galati, 1995 *'' Palaeomyia'' Poinar 2004 Burmese amber, Albian *'' Phlebotomites'' Stebner ''et al.''2015 Lebanese amber, Barremian, Burmese amber,

Cenomanian The Cenomanian is, in the ICS' geological timescale, the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous Series. An age is a unit of geochronology; it is a unit of time; the stage is a unit in ...

*'' Phlebotoiella'' Solórzano Kraemer and Wagner 2009 Cambay amber, India, Eocene *''

'' Rondani, 1995 & Berté, 1840 (Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia) *'' Pintomyia'' Costa Lima, 1932 *'' Pressatia'' Mangabeira, 1942 * Protopsychodinae Stebner ''et al.''2015 *'' Protopsychoda'' Azar et al. 1999 Lebanese amber, Barremian *'' Psathyromyia'' Barretto, 1962 *'' Psychodopygus'' Mangabeira, 1941 *'' Sciopemyia'' Barretto, 1962 *'' Sergentomyia'' França & Parrot, 1920 (Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia) *'' Trichophoromyia'' Barretto, 1962 *'' Viannamyia'' Mangabeira, 1941 *'' Warileya'' Hertig, 1948 (Central and South America)

Gallery: anatomy of Phlebotominae

File:Parasite170028-fig1 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Head File:Parasite170028-fig2 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Head File:Parasite170028-fig3 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig4 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig5 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig6 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig7 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig8 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Mouth parts File:Parasite170028-fig9 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png File:Parasite170028-fig10 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Thorax File:Parasite170028-fig11 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Thorax File:Parasite170028-fig12 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Thorax File:Parasite170028-fig13 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Thorax File:Parasite170028-fig14 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Wing File:Parasite170028-fig15 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Abdomen File:Parasite170028-fig16 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Abdomen File:Parasite170028-fig17 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Abdomen File:Parasite170028-fig18 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig19 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig20 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig21 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig22 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig23 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig24 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig25 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig26 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig27 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia File:Parasite170028-fig28 Illustrated guide of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).png, Genitalia

References

External links

* *
CIPA Computer-aided Identification of Phlebotomine sand flies of America

on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website {{Taxonbar, from=Q1416438 Psychodidae Nematocera subfamilies Extant Barremian first appearances