''Peromyscus maniculatus'' is a

rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are n ...

native to eastern

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and th ...

. It is most commonly called the eastern deer mouse; when formerly grouped with the western deer mouse (''P. sonoriensis''), it was referred to as the North American deermouse and is fairly widespread across most of North America east of the

Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem), second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest Drainage system (geomorphology), drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson B ...

, with the major exception being the lowland

southeastern United States The Southeastern United States, also referred to as the American Southeast or simply the Southeast, is a geographical List of regions in the United States, region of the United States. It is located broadly on the eastern portion of the south ...

. Like other ''Peromyscus'' species, it can be a

vector Vector most often refers to: *Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction *Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism Vector may also refer to: Mathematic ...

and

carrier Carrier may refer to: Entertainment * ''Carrier'' (album), a 2013 album by The Dodos * ''Carrier'' (board game), a South Pacific World War II board game * ''Carrier'' (TV series), a ten-part documentary miniseries that aired on PBS in April 20 ...

of emerging infectious diseases such as

hantavirus ''Orthohantavirus'' is a genus of single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA viruses in the family '' Hantaviridae'' within the order ''Bunyavirales''. Members of this genus may be called orthohantaviruses or simply hantaviruses. Orthohantav ...

es and

Lyme disease Lyme disease, also known as Lyme borreliosis, is a vector-borne disease caused by the '' Borrelia'' bacterium, which is spread by ticks in the genus '' Ixodes''. The most common sign of infection is an expanding red rash, known as erythema ...

. It is closely related to '' Peromyscus leucopus'', the white-footed mouse.

Overview

The species in its former broad sense had 61 subspecies, but some of these now belong to ''P. sonoriensis''. They are all tiny mammals that are plentiful in number. The deer mouse is a small

that lives in eastern North America and is closely related to the white-footed mouse, '' Peromyscus leucopus''.The New Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. (Vol. 12, p. 631). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. Because the two species are extremely similar in appearance, they are best distinguished through red blood cell agglutination tests or karyotype techniques. The deer mouse can also be distinguished physically by its long and multicolored tail. Deer mice are very often used for laboratory experimentation due to their self cleanliness and easy care.

Physical description

The eastern deer mouse is small in size, only long, not including the tail. They have large beady eyes and large ears giving them good sight and

hearing Hearing, or auditory perception, is the ability to perceive sounds through an organ, such as an ear, by detecting vibrations as periodic changes in the pressure of a surrounding medium. The academic field concerned with hearing is audit ...

. ''Peromyscus maniculatus'' has soft fur which varies in color, from gray to brown, but all deer mice have a distinguishable white underside and white feet. Deer mice tails are covered with fine hairs, with the same dark/light split as the fur on the rest of its body. ''P. maniculatus'' has distinct subspecies. Of those most common in North America, the woodland form has longer hind legs, a longer tail, and larger ears than the prairie form.

Behavior

Eastern deer mice are

nocturnal Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed sens ...

creatures who spend the day time in areas such as trees or burrows where they have nests made of

plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae excl ...

material. The pups within litters of deer mice are kept by the mother within an individual home range. Deer mice typically live in a home range of 242 to 3000 square meters. Although deer mice live in individual home ranges, these ranges do tend to overlap. When overlapping occurs, it is more likely to be with opposite sexes rather than with the same sex, as male deer mice have a much greater home range than the much more territorial females. Deer mice that live within overlapping home ranges tend to recognize one another and interact a lot. The woodland variety of ''P. maniculatus'' is an adept climber, and prefers tree cover meters above the ground, while the prairie form prefers to move from burrow to burrow in open areas, avoiding floral cover.

High-elevation adaptations

Some deer mice are found at high elevations where there are low levels of oxygen and ambient temperatures. They encounter year-round hypoxia and cold, and undergo their entire reproductive cycles under these harsh conditions. Chronic hypoxia can limit the growth of these high-elevation deer mice during gestation, which can affect development and maternal physiology. However, high-elevation deer mice do appear to have several physiological adaptations that allow them to survive in these environments. High-elevation mice have a greater capacity for carbohydrate and lipid oxidation compared to low-elevation mice. Mouse populations living at different elevations show allelic variation among gene duplicates that encode the α-chain subunits of adult

hemoglobin Hemoglobin (haemoglobin BrE) (from the Greek word αἷμα, ''haîma'' 'blood' + Latin ''globus'' 'ball, sphere' + ''-in'') (), abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein present in red blood cells (erythroc ...

. Modifications in the α and β globin genes may also indicate an increase in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity and oxygen transport in these high-elevation populations.

Reproduction and life span

Procreation

''Peromyscus maniculatus'' are

polygynous Polygyny (; from Neoclassical Greek πολυγυνία (); ) is the most common and accepted form of polygamy around the world, entailing the marriage of a man with several women. Incidence Polygyny is more widespread in Africa than in any ...

, meaning one male will mate with multiple females. They exhibit behaviors associated with polygyny, as males have much larger territory than females, live with multiple females, and are known to commit infanticide if they catch young unattended. Though they usually live alone, during winter the single male-multiple female cohort may live in a shared nest.

Breeding season

Deer mice can reproduce throughout the year, though in most parts of their range, they breed from March to October.Nowak, Ronald M.; Paradiso, John L. (1983). ''Walker's mammals of the world. 4th edition.'' Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press Deer mouse breeding tends to be determined more by food availability rather than by season. In

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are ...

breeding peaks occur from April to June and from September to October.

Nesting

Female deer mice construct nests using a variety of materials including grasses, roots, mosses, wool, thistledown, and various artificial fibers. The male deer mice are allowed by the female to help nest the litter and keep them together and warm for survival.Hanney, Peter W. (1975) ''Rodents: Their Lives and Habits''. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company. In a study, less than half of both male and female deer mice left their original home range to reproduce. This means that there is intrafamilial mating and that the gene flow among deer mice as a whole is limited. There have been recent studies that reveal deer mice also have OCD-like behaviors from altered gut microbiota. This phenomenon is typically shown in their abnormally large nest sizes and the behavior is present within 8 weeks of birth. Large nest building is considered to be a maladaptation as these mice are unnecessarily investing extra energy and effort in building larger nests in a laboratory where conditions are stable.

Gestation, litter size and productivity

Deer mice reproduce profusely and are highest in numbers among their species compared to other local

mammals Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur o ...

. ''Peromyscus'' species' gestation periods range from 22 to 26 days. Typical litters are composed of three to five young; litter size ranges from one to nine young. Most female deer mice have more than one litter per year. Three or four litters per year is probably typical; captive deer mice have borne as many as 14 litters in one year. Males usually live with the family and help care for the young.

Development of young

Deer mice pups are

altricial In biology, altricial species are those in which the young are underdeveloped at the time of birth, but with the aid of their parents mature after birth. Precocial species are those in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the mome ...

, i.e. born blind, naked and helpless; development is rapid. Young deer mice have full coats by the end of the second week; their eyes open between 13 and 19 days and they are fully furred and independent in only a few weeks. Females lactate for 27 to 34 days after giving birth; most young are weaned at about 18 to 24 days. The young reach adult size at about 6 weeks and continue to gain weight slowly thereafter. Age of first estrus averages about 48 days; the earliest recorded was 23 days. The youngest wild female to produce a litter was 55 days old; it was estimated that conception had occurred when she was about 32 days old.

Dispersal

Deer mouse pups usually disperse after weaning and before the birth of the next litter, when they are reaching sexual maturity. Occasionally juveniles remain in the natal area, particularly when breeding space is limited. Most deer mice travel less than from the natal area to establish their own home range.

Longevity and mortality

In the lab their maximum life span is 96 months, and mean life expectancy is 45.5 months for females and 47.5 for males. In many areas deer mice live less than 1 year. One captive male deer mouse lived 32 months, and there is a report of a forest deer mouse that lived 8 years in captivity (another mouse was fertile until almost 6 years of age).

Habitat

''Peromyscus maniculatus'' are found in all throughout eastern

. The majority of deer mice nest high up, in large hollow trees. The deer mouse nests alone for the most part but during the winter will nest in groups of 10 or more. Deer mice, specifically the prairie form, are also abundant in the farmland of the midwestern United States. Deer mice can be found active on top of snow or beneath logs during the winter seasons. In northern New England deer mice are present in both coniferous and

deciduous In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, ...

forests. Deer mice are often the only Peromyscus species in northern boreal forest.Baker, Rollin H. (1968). "Habitats and distribution". In: King, John Arthur, ed. ''Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia)''. Special Publication No. 2. Stillwater, OK: ''The American Society of Mammalogists'' 98–126. Subspecies differ in their use of plant communities and vegetation structures. There are two main groups of deer mouse: the prairie deer mouse and the woodland or forest deer mouse group.Whitaker, John O., Jr. (1980). ''National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals.'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.

Cover requirements

Deer mice are often active in open habitat; most subspecies do not develop hidden runways the way many voles (''

Microtus ''Microtus'' is a genus of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. About 62 species are placed in the genus. They are stout rodents with short ears, legs and tails. They ea ...

'' and '' Clethrionomys'' spp.) do. In open habitat within forests deer mice have a tendency to visit the nearest timber. In central Ontario deer mice used downed wood for runways. Deer mice nest in burrows dug in the ground or construct nests in raised areas such as brush piles, logs, rocks, stumps, under bark, and in hollows in trees. Nests are also constructed in various structures and artifacts including old boards and abandoned vehicles. Nests have been found up to above the ground in

Douglas-fir The Douglas fir (''Pseudotsuga menziesii'') is an evergreen conifer species in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is native to western North America and is also known as Douglas-fir, Douglas spruce, Oregon pine, and Columbian pine. There are three va ...

trees.Maser, Chris; Mate, Bruce R.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. (1981). Natural history of Oregon Coast mammals. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-133. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Predators

Deer mice are important prey for snakes (''

Viperidae The Viperidae (vipers) are a family of snakes found in most parts of the world, except for Antarctica, Australia, Hawaii, Madagascar, and various other isolated islands. They are venomous and have long (relative to non-vipers), hinged fangs th ...

'' sp.), owls ('' Strigidae'' sp.),

American mink The American mink (''Neogale vison'') is a semiaquatic species of mustelid native to North America, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe, Asia and South America. Because of range expansion, the American mink i ...

(''Neogale vison''),

American marten The American marten (''Martes americana''), also known as the American pine marten, is a species of North American mammal, a member of the family Mustelidae. The species is sometimes referred to as simply the pine marten. The name "pine marten" ...

s (''Martes americana'') and other mustelids, as well as skunks ('' Mephitis'' and '' Spilogale'' sp.),

bobcat The bobcat (''Lynx rufus''), also known as the red lynx, is a medium-sized cat native to North America. It ranges from southern Canada through most of the contiguous United States to Oaxaca in Mexico. It is listed as Least Concern on the ...

s (''Lynx rufus''), domestic cats (''Felis catus''),

coyote The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological nich ...

s (''Canis latrans''), and foxes (''Vulpes vulpes'' and ''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''). Deer mice are also parasitized by ''

Cuterebra fontinella ''Cuterebra fontinella'', the mouse bot fly, is a species of New World skin bot fly in the family Oestridae. ''C. fontinella'' is typically around in length with a black and yellow color pattern. ''C. fontinella'' develops by parasitizing nutrie ...

''.

Diet

Deer mice are omnivorous; the main dietary items usually include seeds, fruits,

arthropods Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, ...

, leaves, and

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...

; fungi have the least amount of intake. Throughout the year, the deer mouse will change its eating habits to reflect on what is available to eat during that season. During winter months, the arthropods compose of one-fifth of the deer mouse's food. These include spiders, caterpillars, and heteropterans. During the spring months, seeds become available to eat, along with insects, which are consumed in large quantities. Leaves are also found in the stomachs of deer mice in the spring seasons. During summer months, the mouse consumes seeds and fruits. During the fall season, the deer mouse will slowly change its eating habits to resemble the winter's diet.

References

External links

Description of speciesAdditional information on speciesStudying the homing ability of deer mice.
(available on sci-hub).

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q649836 Peromyscus Rodents of North America Mammals of Canada Storage pests Mammals of the United States Least concern biota of North America Least concern biota of the United States Mammals described in 1845 Taxa named by Johann Andreas Wagner