Pausanias ( grc-gre, Παυσανίας) was the

Agiad The Agiad dynasty was one of the two royal families of Sparta, a powerful city-state of Ancient Greece. The Agiads were seniors to the other royal house, the Eurypontids, with whom they had an enduring rivalry. Their hypothetical founder was Agis I ...

King of Sparta For most of its history, the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta in the Peloponnese was ruled by kings. Sparta was unusual among the Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had ...

; the son of Pleistoanax. He ruled Sparta from 445 BC to 427 BC and again from 409 BC to 395 BC. He was the leader of the faction in Sparta that opposed the imperialist policy conducted by

Lysander Lysander (; grc-gre, Λύσανδρος ; died 395 BC) was a Spartan military and political leader. He destroyed the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC, forcing Athens to capitulate and bringing the Peloponnesian War to an en ...

. Pausanias became king in 445 BC, when his father Pleistoanax was forced into exile because he made a peace settlement with

Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...

, which was deemed dishonourable in Sparta. Too young to reign, his uncle Cleomenes acted as regent. Pleistoanax then returned in 427 BC and resumed his reign. Pausanias effectively became king in 409, at the death of his father. As he continued the conciliatory policy with Athens favoured by Pleistoanax, Pausanias clashed with Lysander, the Spartan general who had won the Peloponnesian War against Athens in 404 BC and supported an imperialist policy in the

Aegean Sea The Aegean Sea ; tr, Ege Denizi (Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος: "Egéo Pélagos", Turkish: "Ege Denizi" or "Adalar Denizi") is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans ...

. In 403 BC, Pausanias engineered the restoration of the Athenian democracy, which had been replaced by the regime of the Thirty Tyrants installed by Lysander after his victory. The latter's supporters and the other king

Agis II Agis II ( grc-gre, Ἄγις; died c. 399 BC) was the 18th Eurypontid king of Sparta, the eldest son of Archidamus II by his first wife, and half-brother of Agesilaus II. He ruled with his Agiad co-monarch Pausanias.Thebes at the beginning of the Corinthian War. Pausanias was again prosecuted by Lysander's friends, who accused him of having delayed his army to avoid supporting Lysander. This time, Pausanias was sentenced to death and had to go into exile in

Tegea Tegea (; el, Τεγέα) was a settlement in ancient Arcadia, and it is also a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the Tripoli municipality, of which it is a municipal un ...

. He composed there a political treaty dealing with the Spartan constitution and Lycurgus, the mythical legislator of Sparta.

First reign (c.445–427 BC)

Pausanias belonged to the

Agiad dynasty The Agiad dynasty was one of the two royal families of Sparta, a powerful city-state of Ancient Greece. The Agiads were seniors to the other royal house, the Eurypontids, with whom they had an enduring rivalry. Their hypothetical founder was Agis I ...

and was the son of king Pleistoanax, born during a period of conflict against the other Spartan authorities and the Eurypontids—the other Spartan dynasty. His father was forced to go into exile after his first military campaign against

in 445 because he was accused of having taken a bribe from

Pericles Pericles (; grc-gre, Περικλῆς; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a Greek politician and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Pelo ...

and offered him a lenient peace as a result. Pausanias was probably born around this time, perhaps even after his father's exile. The choice of his name is significant, as Pleistoanax gave him the name of his own father Pausanias the Regent, who was starved to death by the ephors in the temple of

Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretism, syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded ...

in Sparta; thus showing Pleistoanax's defiance against the Spartan government. The regency for Pausanias was assumed by his uncle Cleomenes, second son of Pausanias the Regent. This period was dominated by the Eurypontid king

Archidamus II Archidamus II ( grc-gre, Ἀρχίδαμος ; died 427/6 BC) was a king of Sparta who reigned from approximately 469/8 BC to 427/6 BC. His father was Zeuxidamus (called Cyniscos by many Spartans). Zeuxidamus married and had a son, Archi ...

, who prevented Pleistoanax from returning to Sparta, while Pausanias could not oppose him as a child. Pleistoanax could only return in 427, after the death of Archidamus; he recovered his former position, with Pausanias as prince. During his second reign, Pleistoanax was the leader of the Peace faction in Sparta, in favour of negotiating a settlement with Athens to end the Peloponnesian War (ongoing since 431). His efforts were rewarded with the

Peace of Nicias The Peace of Nicias was a peace treaty signed between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta in March 421 BC that ended the first half of the Peloponnesian War. In 425 BC, the Spartans had lost the battles of Pylos and Sphacteria, a severe ...

in 421, which nevertheless had only a short life. Pleistoanax finally died in 408 and Pausanias became king again; this time in full capacity.Ste. Croix, ''Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', p. 143.

Second reign (409–395 BC)

The later part of the Peloponnesian War was dominated by

, a talented general from the entourage of the Eurypontids. Thanks to his naval victories against Athens in the

, Lysander built a network of friendships with puppet oligarchies and the

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

prince Cyrus, which even overshadowed the Spartan kings.Lewis, "Sparta as victor", in ''Cambridge Ancient History'', vol. 6, p. 25. In 406, Pausanias likely supported the candidacy of

Callicratidas Callicratidas ( el, Καλλικρατίδας) was a Spartan navarch during the Peloponnesian War. He belonged to the mothax class so he was not a Spartiate, despite his status he had risen to prominence. In 406 BC, he was sent to the Aegean to ...

to replace Lysander as

navarch Navarch ( el, ναύαρχος, ) is an Anglicisation of a Greek word meaning "leader of the ships", which in some states became the title of an office equivalent to that of a modern admiral. Historical usage Not all states gave their naval ...

(commander of the navy), but the latter sabotaged the position of his successor, which led to the defeat of Arginusae and Lysander's return to command the following year.

Restoration of the Athenian democracy (405–403 BC)

Pausanias' first known command was in Autumn 405, when he led the main force of the Peloponnesian League to besiege Athens, although Agis was already in Attica, at the head of the garrison of

Decelea Decelea ( grc, Δεκέλεια, ), ''Dekéleia''), was a deme and ancient village in northern Attica serving as a trade route connecting Euboea with Athens, Greece. It was situated near the entrance of the eastern pass across Mount Parnes, which ...

, a stronghold occupied by Sparta since 415. Perhaps Pausanias refused to let Agis command the army because of the century-long enmity between the kings. Athens nevertheless refused to submit and Pausanias returned to Sparta with the army. The Peloponnesian War ended the following year after Lysander negotiated the Athenian surrender, notably with

Theramenes Theramenes (; grc-gre, Θηραμένης; died 404 BC) was an Classical Athens, Athenian statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was particularly active during the two periods of Oligarchy, oligarchic government at ...

, and installed a pro-Spartan oligarchy, known as the Thirty Tyrants, as he had done in Athens' former allied cities when he captured them.Ste. Croix, ''Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', p. 144. This regime was rapidly challenged by the Athenian democratic resistance led by Thrasybulus, who captured the

Piraeus Piraeus ( ; el, Πειραιάς ; grc, Πειραιεύς ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens' city centre, along the east coast of the Saron ...

harbour in 403; the Thirty then retreated to the city of Eleusis in western Attica. Sparta initially made a loan of 100 talents to the Thirty (to hire mercenaries), while Lysander went to Eleusis and his brother Libys as

blockaded Piraeus. Whereas the crushing of the Athenian democrats appeared imminent, Pausanias brought a drastic change in Sparta. In July 403, he convinced a majority of three ephors (out of five) and Agis II to lead the Peloponnesian army to Attica to put Lysander in check. Only one ephor's name is known: Nausikleidas, who also followed Pausanias in Attica. Pausanias initially disguised his real intentions and commanded the army with the official purpose of helping the Thirty.

Thebans Thebes (; ell, Θήβα, ''Thíva'' ; grc, Θῆβαι, ''Thêbai'' .) is a city in Boeotia, Central Greece. It played an important role in Greek myths, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus, Heracles and others. Archaeolo ...

and

Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians ( grc, Α΄ ᾽Επιστολὴ πρὸς Κορινθίους) is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-aut ...

consequently refused to join his expedition, as they believed he was going to make Athens a Spartan possession. Once in Attica, Pausanias relieved Lysander from his command, then fought a small battle against the Athenian Democrats commanded by Thrasybulus. Soon after, Pausanias opened negotiations with the Democrats and advised them to send an official embassy to Sparta. After they heard the Athenian ambassadors, the Spartan ekklesia and the ephors sent a 15-man commission to Attica in order to assist Pausanias to conclude a settlement. Pausanias therefore applied his plan: he granted Athens full internal autonomy, restored the democracy, removed the Spartan garrison from Athens, pronounced a general amnesty among Athenians, while Athens joined the Peloponnesian League. This settlement completely overturned Lysander's policy since the end of the Peloponnesian War, since Lysander's oligarchies in the other Greek cities were probably removed at the same time. Out of gratitude for Pausanias, the Athenians built a large monument for the Spartans who died in the earlier skirmishes against the Democrats. It was located on the

Sacred Way The Sacred Way ( grc, Ἱερὰ Ὁδός, ''Hierá Hodós''), in ancient Greece, was the road from Athens to Eleusis. It was so called because it was the route taken by a procession celebrating the Eleusinian Mysteries. The procession to Eleus ...

, just outside the

Dipylon The Dipylon ( gr, Δίπυλον, "Two-Gated") was the main gate in the city wall of Classical Athens. Located in the modern suburb of Kerameikos, it led to the namesake ancient cemetery, and to the roads connecting Athens with the rest of Greece. ...

. The main source for the events,

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies o ...

, tells that Pausanias acted against Lysander because he was jealous of his power. However, Pausanias was probably more concerned by the growing anger expressed by Sparta's allies against Lysander's aggressive imperialism, and wanted instead to return to Sparta's traditional foreign policy of isolationism abroad and conservatism at home. Lysander and his friends, such as Gylippus, also brought some of wealth they had amassed during the war against Athens, which provoked resentment in Sparta, likely led by Pausanias.

First trial (403 BC)

On his return to Sparta from Athens, Pausanias was prosecuted for betrayal before a supreme court made of the

Gerousia The Gerousia (γερουσία) was the council of elders in ancient Sparta. Sometimes called Spartan senate in the literature, it was made up of the two Spartan kings, plus 28 men over the age of sixty, known as gerontes. The Gerousia was a pr ...

(composed of 28 gerontes and the two kings) and the five ephors. Although he had worked with Pausanias to bring Lysander down, the initiative of the trial came from Agis II, with the obvious encouragement of Lysander's friends. The cause of Agis' shifting behaviour has long been debated by modern historians. Perhaps he only supported Pausanias to reduce Lysander's dangerous power, but then returned to the traditional rivalry between the two royal houses; Agis additionally supported the "hard-line" against Athens. The breakdown of the Gerousia's final vote is known (an exceptional occurrence in Spartan history): the 28 gerontes were evenly divided, but Agis cast his vote against his colleague. Pausanias was nonetheless saved by the ephors, who unanimously voted in his favour, but the reason behind this support is unknown. They presumably agreed with Pausanias' settlement that allowed Sparta to control Athens without intervening too much in its affairs. Following his trial, Pausanias disappears from the sources until 396, probably because he disapproved Sparta's renewed imperialist policy conducted by the Eurypontids, Agis and his successor

Agesilaus II Agesilaus II (; grc-gre, Ἀγησίλαος ; c. 442 – 358 BC) was king of Sparta from c. 399 to 358 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemo ...

, notably against

Elis Elis or Ilia ( el, Ηλεία, ''Ileia'') is a historic region in the western part of the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece. It is administered as a regional unit of the modern region of Western Greece. Its capital is Pyrgos. Until 2011 it was ...

Thessaly Thessaly ( el, Θεσσαλία, translit=Thessalía, ; ancient Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, The ...

, and the expedition against the Persian Empire.

Campaign against Elis (c. 401 BC)

The author Diodorus Siculus, alone of all extant sources, assigns Pausanias the leadership of a campaign against Elis in 401. With levies from all of Sparta's allies except Corinth and Thebes, Pausanias invaded Eleia through Arcadia, taking the border fort of

Lasion Lasion ( gr, Λασίων or Λασιών) was the chief town of the mountainous district of Acroreia in ancient Elis proper, situated upon the frontiers of Arcadia near Psophis. Lasion was a frequent object of dispute between the Arcadians and E ...

, winning over four communities in Acroreia, and seizing Pylus. He then besieged Elis itself, but a successful sortie by the Eleans and some picked

Aetolia Aetolia ( el, Αἰτωλία, Aἰtōlía) is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern regional unit of Aetolia-Acarnania. Geography The Achelous River separates Aetolia ...

n mercenaries prompted him to ravage the countryside instead. Soon afterwards, Pausanias retired to

Dyme Dyme ( grc, Δύμη), or Dymae, was a town and polis (city-state) of ancient Achaea, and the most westerly of the 12 Achaean cities, from which circumstance it is said to have derived its name. The location of Dyme is near the modern Kato Acha ...

in Achaea for the winter, while his troops were garrisoned in forts he had built in Elean territory. Some authorities have been tempted to reject this entire sequence of events because the main source for the Elean war,

, narrates two campaigns instead of one and attributes the leadership of both to the other king, Agis. Others insist that Diodorus, who for own part omits any mention of Agis, preserves authentic material. Ron Unz, who accepts the role of Pausanias, additionally suggests that it was Pausanias who led the subsequent Spartan attack on

Naupactus Nafpaktos ( el, Ναύπακτος) is a town and a former municipality in Aetolia-Acarnania, West Greece, situated on a bay on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, west of the mouth of the river Mornos. It is named for Naupaktos (, Latini ...

, just across the Gulf of Corinth from his winter quarters at Dyme, to expel the Messenians which had been settled there by Athens decades before.

Corinthian War (395 BC)

Returning to Sparta in 395 BC, Lysander was instrumental in starting a war with Thebes and other Greek cities, which came to be known as the Corinthian War. The Spartans prepared to send out an army against this new alliance of Athens, Thebes,

Corinth Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government refor ...

and

Argos Argos most often refers to: * Argos, Peloponnese, a city in Argolis, Greece ** Ancient Argos, the ancient city * Argos (retailer), a catalogue retailer operating in the United Kingdom and Ireland Argos or ARGOS may also refer to: Businesses ...

(with the backing of the Persians). The Spartans arranged for two armies, one under Lysander and the other under Pausanias, to rendezvous at and attack the city of

Haliartus Haliartus or Haliartos (), also known as Ariartus or Ariartos or Hariartus or Hariartos (Ἀρίαρτος or Ἁρίαρτος), was a town of ancient Boeotia, and one of the cities of the Boeotian League. It was situated on the southern side of La ...

Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia ( el, Βοιωτία; modern: ; ancient: ), formerly known as Cadmeis, is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, and its ...

. Lysander arrived at the city while Pausanias's forces were still several days away. Not willing to wait for Pausanias, Lysander advanced to Haliartus with his troops. In the ensuing

Battle of Haliartus The Battle of Haliartus was fought in 395 BC between Sparta and Thebes. The Thebans defeated a Spartan force attempting to seize the town of Haliartus, killing the Spartan leader Lysander. The battle marked the start of the Corinthian War, whic ...

, Lysander was killed after bringing his forces too near the walls of the city. Pausanias's army arrived after Lysander's defeat but then left the battle scene primarily due to Athenian military opposition. King Pausanias negotiated a cease of fighting so the bodies of the dead were able to be collected for a proper burial. After, the Spartan army returned to

Sparta Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...

Second trial (395 BC)

Because of his poor leadership at Haliartus, Pausanias was condemned to death by the Spartans and replaced as king by his young son Agesipolis I. However, Pausanias was able to escape execution and fled

to live in exile in

Exile

In exile, Pausanias wrote a ''logos'', a pamphlet on Lycurgus and the Spartan constitution. Writing was a very unusual activity for a Spartan king at the time, but another contemporary Spartan named Thibron, perhaps the general known in the 390s, also composed a treaty on a similar topic. Pausanias' text is lost and its only mention in ancient sources comes from a corrupted passage in Strabo's '' Geographica'', written in the time of

Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...

.Cartledge, ''Agesilaos'', p. 163. The main point of his pamphlet seems to have been a call for the abolition of the ephors, and returning to the ancestral constitution of Sparta designed by the legendary, or perhaps mythical, lawgiver Lycurgus. Modern scholars suggest that Pausanias argued that the ephorate was not founded by Lycurgus, as it had hitherto been assumed by the Spartans, because

Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...

(384–322) in the ''

Politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...

'' wrote that it was created by king

Theopompus Theopompus ( grc-gre, Θεόπομπος, ''Theópompos''; c. 380 BCc. 315 BC) was an ancient Greek historian and rhetorician. Biography Theopompus was born on the Aegean island of Chios. In early youth, he seems to have spent some time at Athen ...

in the 8th century. This change of thought was perhaps due to the authority of Pausanias' ''logos''. Pausanias therefore had a significant influence on the idealisation of Lycurgus in Sparta, which culminated in the 3rd century, when the revolutionary kings Agis IV and

Cleomenes III Cleomenes III ( grc, Κλεομένης) was one of the two kings of Sparta from 235 to 222 BC. He was a member of the Agiad dynasty and succeeded his father, Leonidas II. He is known for his attempts to reform the Spartan state. From 229 to ...

claimed to base their reforms on Lycurgus. Pausanias is believed to have outlived his son, Agesipolis I, according to an inscription found on a monument set up by Pausanias to the memory of his son in Delphi. The year of Pausanias's death is sometime after 380 BC. He was also the father of

Cleombrotus I Cleombrotus I ( el, Κλεόμβροτος ; died 6 July 371 BC) was a Spartan king of the Agiad line, reigning from 380 BC until 371 BC. Little is known of Cleombrotus' early life. Son of Pausanias, he became king of Sparta after the death of h ...

References

Bibliography

Paul Cartledge Paul Anthony Cartledge (born 24 March 1947)"CARTLEDGE, Prof. Paul Anthony", ''Who's Who 2010'', A & C Black, 2010online edition/ref> is a British ancient historian and academic. From 2008 to 2014 he was the A. G. Leventis Professor of Greek C ...

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Donald Kagan Donald Kagan (; May 1, 1932August 6, 2021) was a Lithuanian-born American historian and classicist at Yale University specializing in ancient Greece, notable for his four-volume history of the Peloponnesian War. He formerly taught in the Departm ...

, ''The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War'', Ithaca/London, Cornell University Press, 1969. * ——, ''The Archidamian War'', Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1974. * ——, ''The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition'', Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1981. * D. M. Lewis, John Boardman,

Simon Hornblower Simon Hornblower, FBA (born 1949) is an English classicist and academic. He is Professor of Classics and Ancient History in the University of Oxford and senior research fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Biography Born in 1949, he was educate ...

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The Cambridge Ancient History ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' is a multi-volume work of ancient history from Prehistory to Late Antiquity, published by Cambridge University Press. The first series, consisting of 12 volumes, was planned in 1919 by Irish historian J. B. Bur ...

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Paul A. Rahe Paul Anthony Rahe (born December 18, 1948) is an American classicist, historian, writer and professor of history at Hillsdale College.

, ''Sparta's First Attic War, The Grand Strategy of Classical Sparta, 478–446 B.C.'', New Haven, Yale University Press, 2019. * * G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, ''The Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', London, Duckworth, 1972. * * Mary E. White,
Some Agiad Dates: Pausanias and His Sons
, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 84 (1964), pp. 140–152. {{DEFAULTSORT:Pausanias 02 Of Sparta 5th-century BC rulers 4th-century BC rulers 5th-century BC Spartans 4th-century BC Spartans Agiad kings of Sparta 4th-century BC deaths Spartan hegemony Year of birth unknown Spartans of the Peloponnesian War