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The Puroik language, sometimes known as Sulung, is a language spoken by the Puroik people of
Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares int ...
in India and of
Lhünzê County Lhünzê County, (; , English: Lhöntse Dzong) is a county of Shannan located in the south-east of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Part of Lhünzê County is claimed by India as part of Arunachal Pradesh, which is a disputed area between People's Re ...
, Tibet, in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. Besides their own language, the Puroik also use Nishi,
Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
, and Assamese. Literacy is very low, at about 2%. Those who are literate use either the
Bengali script Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
,
Devanagari Devanagari ( ; , , Sanskrit pronunciation: ), also called Nagari (),Kathleen Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, , page 83 is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental syste ...
or the
Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Largely unaltered with the exception of extensions (such as diacritics), it used to write English and the o ...
to write Puroik.


Geographical distribution

Remsangpuia (2008:17) listed a limited number of Puroik villages. Currently, Puroik are seen inhabiting the following districts and circles of Arunachal Pradesh. They also live in Nyishi, Aka, and Miji areas. *
East Kameng District East Kameng district is one of districts of Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern, India. It shares an international border with China in the north and district borders with West Kameng district to the west, Pakke-Kessang district to the south ...
:
Chayangtajo Chayangtajo is a small Town situated on a picturesque hilltop overseeing the Himalayas. Chayangtajo is one of the oldest Towns established in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is located in the East Kameng district, 37.50;km aerial distanc ...
, Pipu, Pakke Kessang, Lada, Bameng, Seijosa, Seppa, Sawa, Khenewa, and Pipu-Dipu circles (about 70 villages) *
Pakke-Kessang District Pakke-Kessang is a district located in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the Northeast of India. The district used to be a part of the neighboring district, East Kameng, and was created out of its five southernmost administrative units: Pijera ...
: Pakke-Kessang and Seijosa circles *
Kurung Kumey District Kurung Kumey district (Pron:/kʊˈɹʌŋ kʊˈmi/) is one of the 26 districts of the northeastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, with its district headquarters in Koloriang. Origin of name The name of this district is derived from the Kurun ...
: Koloriang, Sarli, Damin, Parsi Parlo, Nyapin, Phassang, and Paniasang circles *
Kra Daadi District Kra Daadi is a district in Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India. It was carved out of Kurung Kumey district on 7 February 2015. History The creation of Kra Daadi district was approved on 21 March 2013 under the ''Arunachal Pradesh (Re-Organi ...
: Palin, Tali, and Pipsorang circles *
Papum Pare District Papum Pare district (Pron:/ˌpæpəm ˈpæɹɪ or ˈpɑ:ɹeɪ/) is an administrative district in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India. As of 2011, it is the most populous district of Arunachal Pradesh (out of 20). History The district was ...
*
West Kameng District West Kameng (pronounced ) is a district of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. It accounts for 8.86% of the total area of the state. The name is derived from the Kameng river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, that flows through the district ...
* Upper Subansiri District: Taksing circle According to the ''Ethnologue'', Puroik is spoken in 53 villages along the Par River in
Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares int ...
. The Puroik are located from the Upper Subansiri River drainage basin (西巴霞区) to the Tawang River drainage basin (Li 2005). Names include ' (autonym) and ' ( Bangni exonym). There are about 3,000 Puroik as of 2002, who are classified as ethnic
Lhoba Lhoba (English translation: ; ; bo, ལྷོ་པ།) is any of a diverse amalgamation of Sino-Tibetan-speaking tribespeople living in and around Pemako, a region in southeastern Tibet including Mainling, Medog and Zayü counties of Nying ...
by the Chinese government.


Dialects

Lieberherr (2015) consider Puroik to be a
dialect chain A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varie ...
where geographically distant dialects are mutually unintelligible, whereas dialects located close to each other are mutually intelligible. The internal diversity of Puroik is about equal to that of the Western
Kho-Bwa The Kho-Bwa languages, also known as Bugunish and Kamengic, are a small family of languages spoken in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India. The name ''Kho-Bwa'' was originally proposed by George van Driem (2001). It is based on the reconstructed ...
branch. Lieberherr (2015) and Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)Lieberherr, Ismael; Bodt, Timotheus Adrianus. 2017
Sub-grouping Kho-Bwa based on shared core vocabulary
In ''Himalayan Linguistics'', 16(2).
list the following dialects of Puroik, provided here in geographical order from east to west. *Kurung-Kumey dialect: spoken in
Kurung Kumey district Kurung Kumey district (Pron:/kʊˈɹʌŋ kʊˈmi/) is one of the 26 districts of the northeastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, with its district headquarters in Koloriang. Origin of name The name of this district is derived from the Kurun ...
, which is located to the east of
Chayangtajo Chayangtajo is a small Town situated on a picturesque hilltop overseeing the Himalayas. Chayangtajo is one of the oldest Towns established in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is located in the East Kameng district, 37.50;km aerial distanc ...
. May be most similar to the Puroik dialect described in Li Daqin (2004) and other Chinese sources. *Chayangtajo dialect: spoken in Sanchu and neighboring villages of
Chayangtajo Chayangtajo is a small Town situated on a picturesque hilltop overseeing the Himalayas. Chayangtajo is one of the oldest Towns established in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is located in the East Kameng district, 37.50;km aerial distanc ...
circle,
East Kameng district East Kameng district is one of districts of Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern, India. It shares an international border with China in the north and district borders with West Kameng district to the west, Pakke-Kessang district to the south ...
,
Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares int ...
, India by a few hundred speakers. *Lasumpatte dialect: spoken in Lasumpatte village in Seijosa near the
Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
border. Most inhabitants have recently migrated from the Chayangtajo area. *Sario-Saria dialect: spoken in three villages by a few hundred speakers. *Rawa dialect: spoken in several villages in and around Rawa by a few hundred speakers (located between
Chayangtajo Chayangtajo is a small Town situated on a picturesque hilltop overseeing the Himalayas. Chayangtajo is one of the oldest Towns established in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is located in the East Kameng district, 37.50;km aerial distanc ...
and Kojo-Rojo). Also includes ''Poube'' village.'' *Kojo-Rojo dialect: spoken in the villages of Kojo and Rojo, and possibly also in Jarkam village (mutually intelligible with the Puroik dialect spoken in other villages in Lada circle). *Bulu dialect: spoken only in Bulu village by 7–20 speakers.


Classification

Lieberherr & Bodt (2017) classify Puroik as
Kho-Bwa The Kho-Bwa languages, also known as Bugunish and Kamengic, are a small family of languages spoken in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India. The name ''Kho-Bwa'' was originally proposed by George van Driem (2001). It is based on the reconstructed ...
, and has traditionally been considered to be a Sino-Tibetan language. There is some mutual intelligibility with
Bugun The Buguns (formerly Khowa) are one of the earliest recognized schedule tribe of India, majority of them, inhabiting the Singchung Sub-Division of West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. Their total population is approximately 3000. The notab ...
, and Burling (2003) grouped it with Bugun and
Sherdukpen The Sherdukpen are an ethnic group of Arunachal Pradesh state of India. Their population of 9,663 is centered in West Kameng district in the villages of Rupa, Jigaon, Thongri, Shergaon, to the south of Bomdila. All of these are at elevations be ...
, and possibly with Lish and Sartang.
James A. Matisoff James Alan Matisoff ( zh, , t=馬蒂索夫, s=马蒂索夫, p=Mǎdìsuǒfū or zh, , t=馬提索夫, s=马提索夫, p=Mǎtísuǒfū; born July 14, 1937) is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a not ...
(2009) considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language that has undergone
sound change A sound change, in historical linguistics, is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic chang ...
s such as: *
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Tibeto-Burman (commonly abbreviated PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined by ...
nasals > voiced stops *
Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Tibeto-Burman (commonly abbreviated PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined by ...
*-a > -i Lieberherr (2015) also considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language, although he notes that it has likely borrowed from non-Tibetan-Burman languages. However,
Roger Blench Roger Marsh Blench (born August 1, 1953) is a British linguist, ethnomusicologist and development anthropologist. He has an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is based in Cambridge, England. He researches, publishes, and works ...
(2011) considers Puroik to be a
language isolate Language isolates are languages that cannot be classified into larger language families. Korean and Basque are two of the most common examples. Other language isolates include Ainu in Asia, Sandawe in Africa, and Haida in North America. The num ...
.


Grammar

The Puroik grammar notes here have been adapted primarily from Tayeng (1990).Tayeng, Aduk. 1990. Sulung language guide. Shillong: The Director of Information and Public Relations, Arunachal Pradesh


Number

Number is not considered a grammatical feature in Puroik. Plurality is expressed, when required to be stated clearly by ''huangda'', meaning all, many, etc.


Gender

There is no grammatical gender in Puroik. However the two sexes are distinguished when necessary. To indicate other relatives and persons the suffix -''aphu'' is added for the male and -''amua'' for the female. Demonstrative, and Interrogative.


Case

Seven cases may be distinguished: Subject (Nominative), Object (Accusative), Instrumental, Dative (Purposive), Ablative, Possessive (Genitive), and Locative.


Pronoun

The Personal Pronoun distinguished three persons (the first person, second person, and third person) and two numbers (singular and plural). The same form is used for both genders.


Adjective

There are four types of adjectives: adjective of quality, adjective of quantity, demonstrative adjective, interrogative adjective.


Verb

Puroik verbs do not indicate number and person. The three principal tenses (present, past, and future), including the indefinite and the continuous are indicated by means of particles used as suffixes. There are four moods: Imperative, potential, conditional, and subjunctive. Imperative uses the suffix -bo, -da, and -ge for commands. Potential uses the suffix -pa to express the ability to perform. Conditional uses -re/-hangra to express obligation.


Adverb

Adverbs may be distinguished into four classes: Time, place, manner, and interrogative.


Vocabulary

The following list of 181 words in three Puroik dialects, in addition to Proto-Puroik (the reconstructed
proto-language In the tree model of historical linguistics, a proto-language is a postulated ancestral language from which a number of attested languages are believed to have descended by evolution, forming a language family. Proto-languages are usually unattest ...
of the Puroik lects), is from Lieberherr (2015: 280–286). Lieberherr (2015)Lieberherr, Ismael. 2015. A progress report on the historical phonology and affiliation of Puroik
North East Indian Linguistics (NEIL), 7
Canberra, Australian National University: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access.
reconstructs Proto-Puroik, drawing data from the ''Chayangtajo'' dialect and the newly described ''Kojo-Rojo'' and ''Bulu'' dialects. Forms from the ''Rawa'' and ''Saria'' dialects have also been included.


References

*Deuri, R.K. 1982. ''The Sulungs''. Shillong: Government of Arunachal Pradesh. *Remsangphuia. 2008. ''Puroik phonology''. Shillong: Don Bosco Technical School. *Li Daqin 大勤 2004. ''A study of Sulung'' 龙语研究 Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House. *Lieberherr, Ismael. 2015. A progress report on the historical phonology and affiliation of Puroik. In Linda Konnerth and Stephen Morey and Priyankoo Sarmah and Amos Teo (eds.), North East Indian Linguistics (NEIL) 7, 235–286. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access.


Further reading

*Pertin, David. 2005. "The Puroiks (Sulungs) of Arunachal Pradesh." In Primitive Tribes in Contemporary India: Concept, Ethnography and Demography 1, edited by Sarit Kumar Chaudhuri and Sucheta Sen Chaudhuri, 367–378. New Delhi: Mittal. *Dutta, Sristidhar, and Tana Showren. 2008. "A Case Study of the Sulungs (Puroiks)." In: Blisters on their feet: tales of internally displaced persons in India's North East, edited by Samir Kumar Das, 59–68. Los Angeles and New Delhi: Sage. *Lieberherr, Ismael. 2017. ''Grammar of Bulu Puroik''. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Bern The University of Bern (german: Universität Bern, french: Université de Berne, la, Universitas Bernensis) is a university in the Switzerland, Swiss capital of Bern and was founded in 1834. It is regulated and financed by the Canton of Bern. It ...
. *Stonor, C. R. (1952). The Sulung Tribe of the Assam Himalayas. Anthropos, (5/6), 947. doi:10.2307/41104369 *Tayeng, Aduk. 1990. Sulung language guide. Shillong: The Director of Information and Public Relations, Arunachal Pradesh.


External links


Puroik LanguageResources Tab
(Sulung phrasebook)
Text Sulung Good News Christina Story
(text)
Audio Sulung Good News Christian Story
(audio) {{Arunachal languages Kho-Bwa languages Languages of India