The Pulahan (literally "those wearing red" in
Cebuano; es, pulajanes), also known as dios-dios, were the members of a
religious revival
Religious revival may refer to:
* Christian revival
** Revival meeting
* Islamic revival
See also
* Revival (disambiguation)
Revival most often refers to:
*Resuscitation of a person
*Language revival of an extinct language
* Revival (sports tea ...
of
Philippine beliefs that developed in the
Visayas
The Visayas ( ), or the Visayan Islands (Bisayan languages, Visayan: ''Kabisay-an'', ; tl, Kabisayaan ), are one of the three Island groups of the Philippines, principal geographical divisions of the Philippines, along with Luzon and Mindanao ...
prior to the
Philippine Revolution. At its peak, it numbered around 10,000–15,000 adherents. The movement was severely crippled during the
Philippine Revolution after the
Philippine Constabulary
The Philippine Constabulary (PC; tl, Hukbóng Pamayapà ng Pilipinas, ''HPP''; es, Policía de Filipinas, ''PF'') was a gendarmerie-type police force of the Philippines from 1901 to 1991, and the predecessor to the Philippine National Po ...
took over patrols in
Samar
Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
, when the
U.S. military
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
declared the island as "pacified".
Description
Pulahanes practiced a
syncretic
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
religious revival centered mostly on
Philippine mythology
Philippine mythology is the body of stories and epics originating from, and part of, the indigenous Philippine folk religions, which include various ethnic faiths distinct from one another. Philippine mythology is incorporated from various ...
and
Folk Catholicism
Folk Catholicism can be broadly described as various ethnic expressions and practices of Catholicism intermingled with aspects of folk religion. Practices have varied from place to place, and may at times contradict the official doctrines and pra ...
. Individual beliefs include the
anting-antings as well as the revival of the
babaylan
Filipino shamans, commonly known as (also ''Balian'' or , among many other names), were shamans of the various ethnic groups of the pre-colonial
Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or a ...
. Indigenous fighting techniques such as
eskrima
Arnis, also known as Kali or Eskrima/Escrima, is the national martial art of the Philippines. The three are roughly interchangeable umbrella terms for the traditional martial arts of the Philippines ("Filipino Martial Arts", or FMA), which emp ...
were also used in the elite and ferocious combat style. They practiced a form indigenous
martial arts
Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; a ...
called Derobio Eskrima and they specialize using a heavy, crescent-shaped
bolo knife
A bolo ( tl, iták, ilo, bunéng, pag, baráng, ceb, súndang, hil, binangon) is a general term for traditional pre-colonial small to medium-sized single-edged swords or large knives of the Philippines that function as both tools and weapo ...
in their battles. Religious rituals using bottles of
holy oil, prayer books such as the Bible, consecrated ''
anting-anting
''Agimat'', also known as ''Anting'' or folklorized as ''Anting-anting'', is a Filipino word for "amulet" or "charm"."Tagalog-English Dictionary by Leo James English, Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, Manila, distributed by National Book ...
'', as blessings before battles.
Americans have described Pulahanes as notorious fighters and are experts in hand-to-hand combat.
War cries were also common among their fighters. They have also been described as lacking in strategy due to their high casualty figures in battles such as the
Massacre at Dolores
The Battle of Dolores River was a battle fought during the Philippine–American War.
Background
The Pulahanes in July 1904 slaughtered the people of Taviran and then burned the town of Santa Elena. In December, over a thousand Pulahanes besie ...
. They were the subject of many laws passed during the early
American colonial period
The Thirteen Colonies, also known as the Thirteen British Colonies, the Thirteen American Colonies, or later as the United Colonies, were a group of British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America. Founded in the 17th and 18th centur ...
and have often been accused of
banditry
Banditry is a type of organized crime committed by outlaws typically involving the threat or use of violence. A person who engages in banditry is known as a bandit and primarily commits crimes such as extortion, robbery, and murder, either as an ...
.
George Curry,
Governor of Samar
The governor of Samar is the local chief executive of the Philippine province
In the Philippines, provinces ( fil, lalawigan) are one of its primary political and administrative divisions. There are 82 provinces at present, which are furthe ...
, wrote about the Pulahan in a 1907 report: "...Pulahanes are nearly all ignorant, superstitious persons, and are easily influenced for good or for evil. It is therefore necessary that they be closely watched and brought under our influence, to the end that within a few years they may no longer have the desire to lead a wild and lawless life. They are not naturally bad people, and I know that they can be reclaimed to civilization if brought under the influences mentioned above. Missionaries are badly needed for these people. They are all naturally religious and a good priest could exercise more influence over them than anyone else. "
History
The 19th century saw the rise of the ''dios-dios'' "shamans". ''Dios-dios'' (literally "
god pretender" or "false god", from Spanish ''dios'') were religious leaders so named because of their penchant for identifying themselves with Christian religious figures. They led
cult
In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
-like religious movements, promising prosperity, supernatural powers, or healing to their followers. Most were mere
charlatan
A charlatan (also called a swindler or mountebank) is a person practicing quackery or a similar confidence trick in order to obtain money, power, fame, or other advantages through false pretenses, pretense or deception. Synonyms for ''charlatan ...
s selling amulets and magical pieces of paper. Their members were mostly from the illiterate rural poor who had little knowledge of formal Catholic teachings and were living in extreme poverty under colonial rule.
The ''dios-dios'' movement was initially purely religious.
There are numerous examples of ''dios-dios'' leaders in the 19th century. They include Lungao, a healer from
Ilocos
Ilocos Region ( ilo, Rehion/Deppaar ti Ilocos; pag, Sagor na Baybay na Luzon/Rehiyon Uno; tl, Rehiyon ng Ilocos) is an administrative region of the Philippines, designated as Region I, occupying the northwestern section of Luzon and part of ...
who claimed he was Jesus Christ in 1811; Ignacio Dimas, who led the "Tres Cristos" ("Three Christs") of
Libmanan
Libmanan, officially the Municipality of Libmanan ( bcl, Banwaan kan Libmanan; tl, Bayan ng Libmanan), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Camarines Sur, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 112,994 people. ...
,
Nueva Cáceres
Nueva Cáceres, officially the City of Nueva Cáceres ( es, Ciudad de Nueva Cáceres), was a colonial Spanish city in the Philippines. Established by Captain Pedro de Sanchez in 1575, the city was named in honor of Governor-General Francisco de ...
(modern
Camarines Sur
Camarines Sur ( bcl, Habagatan na Camarines; tl, Timog Camarines), officially the Province of Camarines Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Bicol Region on Luzon. Its capital is Pili and the province borders Camarines Norte and ...
) who claimed they had supernatural powers over diseases in 1865; Benedicta, an old woman and a healer who called herself "La Santa de Leyte" ("The Saint of Leyte") in 1862 and prophesied that the island of
Leyte
Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census.
Since the accessibility of land has be ...
would sink;
Clara Tarrosa, an eighty-year-old ''babaylan'' in
Tigbauan
Tigbauan, officially the Municipality of Tigbauan ( krj, Banwa kang Tigbauan; hil, Banwa sang Tigbauan; tl, Bayan ng Tigbauan), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Iloilo, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a populati ...
, Iloilo in the late 1880s who proclaimed herself the
Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother o ...
and isolated herself and her followers from Spanish rule;
Francisco Gonzalez (alias "Francisco Sales" or "Fruto Sales") of
Jaro, Leyte
Jaro (IPA: haɾo, officially the Municipality of Jaro ( war, Bungto han Jaro; tl, Bayan ng Jaro), is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 43,758 people.
History
In ...
who claimed in 1888 that he was a king sent to save people from another
great flood
A flood myth or a deluge myth is a myth in which a great flood, usually sent by a deity or deities, destroys civilization, often in an act of divine retribution. Parallels are often drawn between the flood waters of these myths and the primaeval ...
by leading them to a city that would rise from the waves; and many more. These movements were usually suppressed by the Spanish by imprisoning their leaders or exiling them.
Dios-Dios Rebellions of the 19th century
The movement began on 1887, when
Ponciano Elofre the ''
Cabeza de Barangay
A ''cabeza de barangay'' (literally "head of hebarangay), also known as ''teniente del barrio'', was the leader or chief of a barangay or barrio in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period.Scott, William Henry. ''Barangay Sixteenth-Cen ...
'' of
Zamboanguita
Zamboanguita ( ceb, Lungsod sa Zamboanguita; tl, Bayan ng Zamboanguita), officially the Municipality of Zamboanguita, is a 4th class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Negros Oriental, Philipp ...
,
Negros Oriental
Negros Oriental ( ceb, Sidlakang Negros; tl, Silangang Negros), officially the Province of Negros Oriental, is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Dumaguete. It occupies the southeaste ...
, failed to collect all the taxes from his constituents. As a response Spanish soldiers beat his father, Cris Elofre, to death to teach him a lesson. Thereafter, he rallied the people against the forced payment of taxes to the Spanish government.
His movement would soon incorporate
religious freedom
Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
, as well as the celebration of the ancient rites of the ''
babaylan
Filipino shamans, commonly known as (also ''Balian'' or , among many other names), were shamans of the various ethnic groups of the pre-colonial
Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or a ...
'' (
shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
), with the intention of reviving aspects of
Philippine mythology
Philippine mythology is the body of stories and epics originating from, and part of, the indigenous Philippine folk religions, which include various ethnic faiths distinct from one another. Philippine mythology is incorporated from various ...
. He renamed himself as
Dios Buhawi
Ponciano Elofre (sometimes spelled Ponciano Elopre), later called ( Hiligaynon for "Tornado/Whirlwind God"), was a (head) of a in Zamboanguita in Negros Oriental, Philippines, and the leader of a politico-religious revolt on Negros in the la ...
(literally "Whirlwind God") and proclaimed himself the savior of the people. Emulating the ancient ''asog'' shamans, he dressed in women's clothing and assumed feminine mannerisms even though he was married to a woman. He claimed supernatural powers much like the ancient ''dalagangan''. He called his followers "Pulahanes", who numbered about 2,000 (whom the Spanish authorities called the ''babaylanes'') and would regularly attack Spanish-controlled towns.
Despite its momentum, the movement was unable to achieve its goals. The activities of Elofre so alarmed the Spanish colonial government that Governor-General
Valeriano Weyler
Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, 1st Duke of Rubí, 1st Marquess of Tenerife (17 September 1838 – 20 October 1930) was a Spanish general and colonial administrator who served as the Governor-General of the Philippines and Cuba, and later as S ...
sent 500 men of the ''
Guardia Civil
The Civil Guard ( es, Guardia Civil, link=no; ) is the oldest law enforcement agency in Spain and is one of two national police forces. As a national gendarmerie force, it is military in nature and is responsible for civil policing under the a ...
'' and a battleship to Negros to deal with the threat.
In 22 August 1887, Elofre raided
Siaton
Siaton ( ceb, Lungsod sa Siaton; tl, Bayan ng Siaton), officially the Municipality of Siaton, is a 1st class municipality and the southernmost settlement in the province of Negros Oriental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a po ...
, the town adjoining Zamboanguita, and was killed in the encounter with colonial forces. His wife, Flaviana Tubigan, and relatives attempted to continue the movement, but they were eventually captured and exiled by Spanish authorities. They were succeeded by Ka Martin de la Cruz, of
Tolong in southern
Negros Oriental
Negros Oriental ( ceb, Sidlakang Negros; tl, Silangang Negros), officially the Province of Negros Oriental, is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Dumaguete. It occupies the southeaste ...
, Elofre's lieutenant. De la Cruz' command of the ''babaylanes'' degenerated into banditry. When the Spanish authorities failed in their bid to capture him, on 11 September 1893, de la Cruz was killed in a trap laid by his own mistress, Alfonsa Alaidan. The remaining Buhawi followers, were later recruited by
Papa Isio
Dionisio Magbuelas (20 March 1846 - 1911), Dionisio Seguela or Dionisio Papa y Barlucia, more widely known as Papa Isio ( Hiligaynon: ''Isio the Pope''), was the leader of a group of ''babaylanes'' who were, as conjectured by Modesto P. Sa- ...
when he began to organize his own group of ''babaylanes'' in another revolt against Spain.
The last significant ''dios-dios'' rebellion in the 19th century was led by
Dionisio Magbuelas, better known as
Papa Isio
Dionisio Magbuelas (20 March 1846 - 1911), Dionisio Seguela or Dionisio Papa y Barlucia, more widely known as Papa Isio ( Hiligaynon: ''Isio the Pope''), was the leader of a group of ''babaylanes'' who were, as conjectured by Modesto P. Sa- ...
, meaning "Pope Isio". Papa Isio was a son of migrants from
Panay
Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and has a total population of 4,542,926 as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City o ...
. By 1880 at 34 years old, he was involved in a scuffle with a
Spaniard
Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ind ...
. Fearing reprisal from the colonial government, he fled to the mountains, where he met
Dios Buhawi
Ponciano Elofre (sometimes spelled Ponciano Elopre), later called ( Hiligaynon for "Tornado/Whirlwind God"), was a (head) of a in Zamboanguita in Negros Oriental, Philippines, and the leader of a politico-religious revolt on Negros in the la ...
, leader of the Pulahanes. He joined the Dios Buhawi group. In 1896 Papa Isio organized his own ''babaylanes'' group from remnants of Buhawi's followers, in
Himamaylan
Himamaylan (), officially the City of Himamaylan ( hil, Dakbanwa/Syudad sang Himamaylan; fil, Lungsod ng Himamaylan), is a 3rd class component city in the province of Negros Occidental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a populat ...
,
Negros Occidental
Negros Occidental ( hil, Nakatungdang Negros; tl, Kanlurang Negros), officially the Province of Negros Occidental, is a Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas Regions of the Philippines, region. ...
.
[Cuesta, Angel Martinez, OAR: ''History of Negros.'', Historical Conservation Society, Manila, 1980] During his leadership, the movement would become more organized and he led a new revolt beginning in
Himamaylan
Himamaylan (), officially the City of Himamaylan ( hil, Dakbanwa/Syudad sang Himamaylan; fil, Lungsod ng Himamaylan), is a 3rd class component city in the province of Negros Occidental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a populat ...
.
The movement would continue until the
Philippine Revolution in August 1898. During this era, the movement rapidly gained adherents and began setting up base camp on the slopes of
Mount Kanlaon
Kanlaon, also known as Mount Kanlaon and Kanlaon Volcano ( hil, Bolkang Kanglaon; ceb, Bolkang Kanglaon; fil, Bulkang Kanlaon), is an Active volcano, active stratovolcano and the highest mountain on the island of Negros Island, Negros in the P ...
. Soon, they began to have sympathy for the
Katipunan
The Katipunan, officially known as the Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK; en, Supreme and Honorable Association of the Children of the Nation ...
, and entered a pact with
Aniceto Lacson
Aniceto Lacson y Ledesma (April 17, 1857 – February 3, 1931) was the first and only president of the Negros Republic from 1898 to 1901. He is notable for leading the Negros Revolution along with Juan Araneta, and was a sugar baron.Foreman, J., ...
and
Juan Araneta
Juan Anacleto Araneta y Torres (July 13, 1852 – October 3, 1924), was a pioneer sugar farmer and revolutionary leader during the Negros Revolution.
Early life
Juan was born to Romualdo Araneta y Cabunsol and Agüeda Torres y Villanueva ...
, leaders of the Katipunan-affiliated
Negros Revolution
The Negros Revolution ( fil, Himagsikang Negrense; ceb, Rebolusyong Negrense; es, Revolución negrense), commemorated and popularly known as the Fifth of November ( es, links=no, Cinco de noviembre) or Negros Day ( hil, Adlaw sang Negros; ce ...
. After the formation of the
Republic of Negros
The Republic of Negros ( hil, Republika sang Negros; ceb, Republika sa Negros; es, República de Negros) was a short-lived revolutionary entity which had existed on the island of Negros first as a canton of the First Philippine Republic and ...
in November 1898, tensions began to arise with their new allies. This led to a boiling point when the leaders of this republic signed a treaty with the United States. Papa Isio immediately withdrew his allegiance from this government and began his new offensive. After the Philippines was ceded to the United States after the
Spanish–American War
, partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence
, image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg
, image_size = 300px
, caption = (clock ...
, Papa Isio was initially made "military chief" of
La Castellana, Negros Occidental
La Castellana, officially the Municipality of La Castellana, is a 1st class municipality in the province of Negros Occidental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 79,492 people.
The town is named after the famous " ...
under the
American government
The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic located primarily in North America, composed of 50 states, a city within a feder ...
. However, he picked up armed resistance again in 1899 during the
Philippine–American War
The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
. His movement ended on 6 August 1907, when Papa Isio surrendered to American authorities and was sentenced to death. This was later commuted to life imprisonment and he died in the
Manila Bilibid Prison in 1911.
Another ''dios-dios'' uprising was led by a shaman named
Gregorio Lampinio (better known as "Gregorio Dios", and also known as "Hilario Pablo" or "Papa") in
Antique
An antique ( la, antiquus; 'old', 'ancient') is an item perceived as having value because of its aesthetic or historical significance, and often defined as at least 100 years old (or some other limit), although the term is often used loosely ...
from 1888. The uprising was formed near
Mount Balabago, a sacred pilgrimage site for shamans. Lampinio led a force of around 400 people. They collected ''contribuciones babaylanes'' (a
revolutionary tax Revolutionary tax is a major form of funding for violent non-state actors such as guerrilla and terrorist organizations. Those outside the organization may consider it to be a euphemism for "protection money."[Guardia Civil
The Civil Guard ( es, Guardia Civil, link=no; ) is the oldest law enforcement agency in Spain and is one of two national police forces. As a national gendarmerie force, it is military in nature and is responsible for civil policing under the a ...]
by 1890.
The Pulahan campaign
Concurrent with Papa Isio's rebellion in Negros Occidental against American rule, the ''dios-dios'' movement in eastern Visayas turned their attention to the new
American colonial government. Calling themselves the Pulajanes ("those who wear red"). Like their predecessors, they claimed supernatural powers and used fetishistic amulets, holy oils, and magic spells in battle. They attacked both American troops and local Filipinos cooperating with the American colonial government.
James Francis Smith
James Francis Smith (January 28, 1859 – June 29, 1928) was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, Governor-General of the Philippines and an associate judge of the United States Court of Customs Appeals.
Education and c ...
,
Governor-General of the Philippines
The Governor-General of the Philippines (Spanish: ''Gobernador y Capitán General de Filipinas''; Filipino: ''Gobernador-Heneral ng Pilipinas/Kapitan Heneral ng Pilipinas''; Japanese: ) was the title of the government executive during the colon ...
, wrote about the Pulahanes in a 1906 report: ''"To many the word "pulahan" is synonymous with that of bandit or robber. This designation... is hardly proper. The pulahanes of Leyte and Samar can hardly be called robbers or thieves. Indeed, as a rule the pulahan is hard working, industrious, and not at all disposed to violence unless impelled to it by long continued wrongs or by the potent influence of religious fanaticism. All the trouble in Leyte and in Samar was due in a large degree to injustices perpetrated upon the people... Education and just treatment will make out of the pulahan a good citizen"''
Leyte
![Faustino Ablen](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Faustino_Ablen.png)
From 1902 to 1907 the Pulahanes challenged the American authorities in Leyte, led by Faustino Ablen ("Papa Faustino"), an illiterate peasant who assumed the title of pope. Ablen claimed to have supernatural powers and sold
anting-anting
''Agimat'', also known as ''Anting'' or folklorized as ''Anting-anting'', is a Filipino word for "amulet" or "charm"."Tagalog-English Dictionary by Leo James English, Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, Manila, distributed by National Book ...
that would render one invisible to the enemy and holy oil that could cure any ailment. Ablen promised his followers that after victory, he would lead them to a mountain top on which stood seven churches made of gold, and they would be re-united with dead relatives and lost carabaos. Ablen's troops attacked American forces and captured weapons where they could, however their primary weapon remained the
bolo. They would also attack Filipino's who collaborated with the Americans. For example, during the raid on
Carigara
Carigara (), officially the Municipality of Carigara ( war, Bungto han Carigara; tl, Bayan ng Carigara), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 54,656 people.
The ...
, they beheaded the local presidente, killed his wife and kidnapped his children. They did not harm innocent locals, their only purpose was to obtain weapons and wreak vengeance on the town police. Despite determined campaigns by the Constabulary, the revolt continued to grow. In some battles, the movement managed to deploy five hundred to one thousand men. The government was so alarmed that it offered a 2000 peso reward for Papa Faustino, dead or alive. US Major General
Leonard Wood
Leonard Wood (October 9, 1860 – August 7, 1927) was a United States Army major general, physician, and public official. He served as the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, Military Governor of Cuba, and Governor-General of the Philippi ...
sent four battalions of the US Army to Leyte to crush the rebellion. This finally broke the rebellion into exceedingly smaller groups that were forced to deploy guerilla tactics. On May 25, 1907, Papa Faustino's wife and family were captured.
On June 11, 1907, a detachment of Philippine Scouts chanced upon four Pulahan fighters and opened fire. Three men escaped, but one was captured. He was Papa Faustino. With his capture, the rebellion in Leyte came to an end.
Samar
After
Emilio Aguinaldo
Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy (: March 22, 1869February 6, 1964) was a Filipino revolutionary, statesman, and military leader who is the youngest president of the Philippines (1899–1901) and is recognized as the first president of the Philippine ...
's surrender to the Americans in the Philippine-American War in 1901, the resistance continued in Samar, led by general
Vicente Lukbán
Vicente Lukbán y Rilles or Vicente Lucbán Rilles (February 11, 1860 – November 16, 1916) was a Philippine General in the Philippine Republican Army.
He was also an officer in Emilio Aguinaldo's staff during the Philippine Revolution and the ...
. The hardships the local population went through by the hands of the US Army, such as the genocidal
March across Samar
The march across Samar, or Waller's March across the island of Samar, was a failed attempt made in 1901 by a U.S. Marine unit commanded by Major Littleton W. T. Waller to traverse the Philippine island of Samar from Lanang (now Llorente, Easter ...
, instilled a deep hatred for the Americans among the Samareño's.. Thus, after Lukban's secret headquarters along the Cadac-an River was taken over by the Americans on 17 November 1901, several rebel leaders refused to surrender and retreated to the interior of the island, including Lukban who had escaped. Among the rebel leaders were Pablo Bulan ("Papa Pablo"), Antonio Anugar, and Pedro de la Cruz. All of them were members of the Dios-Dios. After Lukban was captured on 18 February 1902, Papa Pablo became the leader of the resistance. From 1902 to 1904, Papa Pablo built up his forces in the mountains, which were estimated at 7,000 by 1903.
After the Americans brought them the same corrupt officials, new taxes and laws, the local population began to join the Pulahanes and launch attacks on the government.
Colonel Enrique Villareal Dagohob (or Daguhob) was a college-educated native of Bicol, who served in the
Siege of Catubig
The siege of Catubig (Filipino: ''Pagkubkob sa Catubig'') was a long and bloody engagement fought during the Philippine–American War, in which Filipino guerrillas launched a surprise attack against a detachment of U.S. infantry, and then for ...
on April 1900.
[Linn, B.M., ''The Philippine War, 1899–1902'', Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, ] He was jailed in his native Masbate from 1902, under the name Andres Villasis (which according to the
Philippine Commission
The Philippine Commission was the name of two bodies, both appointed by the president of the United States, to assist with governing the Philippines.
The first Philippine Commission, also known as the Schurman Commission, was appointed by Preside ...
was probably his real name), until 24 February 1903. On this day he escaped with five other accomplices. After escaping jail, he went to Leyte and became a prominent military leader, where he was known as Enrique Villareal. In the spring of 1904, he went to Samar under the new pseudonym Dagohob, which means "strong wind" or "thunder" in the Visayan language. He left Leyte for Samar because of the more favorable war conditions and the strained relations with other Pulahanes. After his arrival, Dagohob set up a base in
Catubig
Catubig, officially the Municipality of Catubig ( war, Bungto han Catubig; tl, Bayan ng Catubig), is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Northern Samar, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 32,174 people.
Hi ...
in Eastern Samar. After being given a considerable amount of freedom by the Pulahan leaders, perhaps because of his superior education, Dagohob quickly took over the leadership of northeastern Samar and bolstered the Pulahan movement on the island. Dagohob planned to drive the local population into the mountainous interior of the island by the destruction of towns and villages, after which they would be influenced to join the resistance. The government responded by stationing troops and warning the local residents not to leave their settlements. As the Pulahanes had grown too strong for the Constabulary and Philippine Scouts to handle, the US Army relieved the Constabulary forces in December 1904. However, attacks continued and more weapons were captured. The Constabulary forces were then sent into the heart of Pulahan territory. One detachment established a fort at San Ramon, which the Pulahanes soon attacked. The following description of the assault was made:
A devastating battle for the movement was the
Battle of Dolores River on 12 December 1904, in
Samar
Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
, when over 1,000 Pulahanes led by Pedro de la Cruz were massacred by the 38-man contingency of the United States-led
Philippine Constabulary
The Philippine Constabulary (PC; tl, Hukbóng Pamayapà ng Pilipinas, ''HPP''; es, Policía de Filipinas, ''PF'') was a gendarmerie-type police force of the Philippines from 1901 to 1991, and the predecessor to the Philippine National Po ...
. The 38th was ambushed en route, by over 1,000
Pulahanes. As the Pulahanes rushed, waving colorful banners and shouting "Tad-Tad!" (''Tadtad'', "Cut To Pieces!") they were met with a volley of rifle-fire that stopped their advance. The Constables held their ground and repelled the attacks, inflicting heavy losses with accurate and steady rifle fire. The Pulahanes were far greater in number, however, and they eventually wiped out the entire scout force. Of the 43-man contingent, the officer and 37 of his men were killed. The Pulajans on the other hand, suffered much heavier losses. Estimates range as high as 300 dead before the Constabulary fell. The pulahan fighters were able to capture 38
Krags rifles, along with a large amount of ammunition.
[Foreman, J., 1906, ''The Philippine Islands, A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago'', New York: Charles Scribner's Sons]
After several captures of guns by the Pulahanes, their force grew stronger, both in firepower and in the boldness of the fighters. By February 1905 the Pulahanes dominated many areas of the island. The government had practically no control of Samar, which was limited to military posts. To make headway, eastern Samar was placed under complete control of the regular army, while the Constabulary retained control over the more peaceful western side. In a surprise attack in July 1905, American troops killed Dagohob, after which many of his followers surrendered and resistance in the area he controlled stopped. In August, Antonio Anugar was also killed. Early in 1906, Nazario Aguillar and 130 of his men agreed to surrender, however this was only a ruse, as during the surrender ceremony they suddenly attacked instead of giving up their arms. It was a suicidal attempt as 43 Pulahanes were killed, but they did kill 22 Constables.
[ In November 1906, de la Cruz was killed in battle and a number of his officers were captured. A few days later, Constables attacked Papa Pablo's camp and killed him. Only one leader of importance remained, Isidro Pompac, also known as Otoy, who assumed control and the title of Papa. By this time, the Pulahanes were much weakened and Otoy roamed from place to place to evade capture. George Curry, ]Governor of Samar
The governor of Samar is the local chief executive of the Philippine province
In the Philippines, provinces ( fil, lalawigan) are one of its primary political and administrative divisions. There are 82 provinces at present, which are furthe ...
, wrote about the Pulahan in a 1907 report: "Pulahanism" has almost ceased to exist in this province (Samar). Otoy, assisted by Angeles and a few others, is in the mountains between Borongan and Basey with some fifty or sixty followers. They have been so closely pressed by the military, constabulary, and volunteers that they have not made an attack on any of the towns or force since November 1906. Since my last report, Papa Pablo, the religious head of the Pulahanes, Pedro de la Cruz, the fighting leader, Lucente Picardel, and several other leaders have been killed." Major J.B. Murphy was senior inspector and leader of the Samar Philippine Constabulary
The Philippine Constabulary (PC; tl, Hukbóng Pamayapà ng Pilipinas, ''HPP''; es, Policía de Filipinas, ''PF'') was a gendarmerie-type police force of the Philippines from 1901 to 1991, and the predecessor to the Philippine National Po ...
, tasked with capturing Pulahan leadership.
Curry appointed former Philippine Revolution Army Officers Congressman Eugenio Daza
Don Eugenio Daza y Salazar (November 15, 1870 – December 16, 1954) is a Filipino '' principale'' (nobleman) recognized by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) as the first ''maestro'' (teacher) in the Samar province. He was ...
and Narciso Abuke to serve directly under Murphy as Captains. Daza oversaw East-Samar and Abuke West-Samar. As captains, they appointed subordinate officers and enlisted men. Many of the men Daza recruited served under him during the Philippine Revolution and Philippine-American War. Daza and Abuke led companies of 100 armed men each. Daza negotiated with, and arrested, Cipriano "Teducduc" Amango the leader of the Southeastern Samar Pulahan and leader of the Magtaon Attack. Teducduc was formerly a revolutionary under Daza during the Philippine-American War. In the barrio of Napta-an, Daza and his men encountered a major group of Pulahanes. Daza's victory here is credited as the victory that led to the eventual defeat of the Pulahan in Samar. Murphy is credited with killing the religious head, Papa Pablo. Abuke and his men are credited with killing their fighting leader, Pedro de la Cruz and 20 of his men. Four years later on 1 October 1911, a Constabulary force managed to locate Otoy's small band and killed them. This ended the Pulahan resistance. In Samar alone, 7000 Pulahanes had died.
See also
*Filipino shamans
Filipino shamans, commonly known as (also ''Balian'' or , among many other names), were shamans of the various ethnic groups of the pre-colonial Philippine islands. These shamans specialized in communicating, appeasing, or harnessing the spir ...
*Battle of Balangiga
The Battle of Balangiga ( es, Batalla de Balangíga; tl, Labanan sa Balangiga; war, Gubat ha Balangiga), also known as the Balangiga Encounter, Balangiga Incident, or Balangiga Conflict, was a battle that occurred during the Philippine–Amer ...
*Anito
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
References
Further reading
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External links
Messianic complex:Undying faith and the struggle for Kalayaan by Jolita C. Atienza (p15)
{{Religion in the Philippines
Visayan history
Religion in the Philippines
Philippine mythology
Folk Catholicism
Military history of Christianity
People of the Philippine Revolution
Philippine–American War