Pulaar (in
Adlam: , in
Ajami
''Ajam'' ( ar, عجم, ʿajam) is an Arabic word meaning mute, which today refers to someone whose mother tongue is not Arabic. During the Arab conquest of Persia, the term became a racial pejorative. In many languages, including Persian, Tu ...
: ) is a
Fula language
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stre ...
spoken primarily as a first language by the
Fula
Fula may refer to:
*Fula people (or Fulani, Fulɓe)
*Fula language (or Pulaar, Fulfulde, Fulani)
**The Fula variety known as the Pulaar language
**The Fula variety known as the Pular language
**The Fula variety known as Maasina Fulfulde
*Al-Fula ...
and
Toucouleur people
__NOTOC__
The Tukulor people ( ar, توكولور), also called Toucouleur or Haalpulaar, are a West African ethnic group native to Futa Tooro region of Senegal. There are smaller communities in Mali and Mauritania. The Toucouleur were Islamized ...
s in the
Senegal River
,french: Fleuve Sénégal)
, name_etymology =
, image = Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg
, image_size =
, image_caption = Fishermen on the bank of the Senegal River estuary at the outskirts of Saint-Louis, Senegal ...
valley area traditionally known as
Futa Tooro
Futa Toro (Wolof and ff, Fuuta Tooro ''𞤆𞤵𞥄𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮𞥄𞤪𞤮''; ar, فوتا تورو), often simply the Futa, is a semidesert region around the middle run of the Senegal River. This region is along the border of Senegal and M ...
and further south and east. Pulaar speakers, known as ''
Haalpulaar'en'' live in
Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
,
Mauritania
Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...
,
the Gambia
The Gambia,, ff, Gammbi, ar, غامبيا officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa. It is the smallest country within mainland AfricaHoare, Ben. (2002) ''The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia'', Kingfisher Publicatio ...
, and western
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali ...
. The two main speakers of Pulaar are the Toucouleur people and the Fulɓe (also known as Fulani or Peul).
Pulaar is the second most spoken local language in Senegal, being a first language for around 22% of the population. This correlates with 23.7% of the country in which Pulaar is the population's ethnicity.
Pulaar is one of the national languages of Senegal alongside 13 others.
It was admitted as an official language of Senegal by Presidential decree in 1971.
There are around 28 known dialects of Pulaar, most of which are mutually intelligible with each other.
The Pulaar dialects, as well as other
West African languages
West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some R ...
, are usually referenced under the umbrella term ‘Fula’. Pulaar as a language, however, is not usually referenced as ‘Fula’.
According to ''Ethnologue'' there are several dialectal varieties, but all are mutually intelligible.
Pulaar is not to be confused with
Pular, another variety of Fula spoken in
Guinea
Guinea ( ),, fuf, 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫, italic=no, Gine, wo, Gine, nqo, ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫, bm, Gine officially the Republic of Guinea (french: République de Guinée), is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the we ...
(including the
Fouta Djallon
Fouta Djallon ( ff, 𞤊𞤵𞥅𞤼𞤢 𞤔𞤢𞤤𞤮𞥅, Fuuta Jaloo; ar, فوتا جالون) is a Highland (geography), highland region in the center of Guinea, roughly corresponding with Middle Guinea, in West Africa.
Etymology
The Ful ...
region). The Pulaar and Pular varieties of Fula are to some extent mutually intelligible.
Pulaar is currently written in the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
and
Adlam scripts, but was historically also written in an
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
known as the "
Ajami script
Ajami ( ar, عجمي, ) or Ajamiyya ( ar, عجمية, ), which comes from the Arabic root for ''foreign'' or ''stranger'', is an Arabic-derived script used for writing African languages, particularly those of Mandé, Hausa and Swahili, although ...
" (see
Fula alphabets
The Fula language ( ff, Fulfulde, ''Pulaar'', or ''Pular'') is written primarily in the Latin script, but in some areas is still written in an older Arabic script called the Ajami script or in the recently invented Adlam script.
Latin-based alphab ...
).
The word Pulaar translates to 'the language of the Fulɓe' as the stem ''/pul/'' is the singular form of Fulɓe and the suffix ''/-aar/'' means language. The language is believed to have formed in Fuuta Tooro when the ancestors of the Toucouleur people began speaking the language of the Fulɓe. It is then believed that the term ''Haalpulaar'en'' (which means 'speakers of the language of Pulaar') was created to apply to non-Fulɓe speakers of Fulɓe, of which the Toucouleur people are the largest demographic.
Linguistic features
The negative accomplished verb form ends in ''-aani''. (This is slightly different from
Maasina Fulfulde
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that str ...
and
Pular.)
Noun Classes
Pulaar contains 21 noun classes. These noun classes can commonly be observed by looking at the suffix of a noun. For example, a noun that is the result of a loan word will typically end in ''-o'' (however, human singular nouns such as ''debbo'' (meaning woman) also end in ''-o''). The class of the noun will often refer to the actual content of the noun. For example, the ''ɗam'' noun class is applied to nouns that describe a liquid.
The table below shows some of the noun classes in Pulaar and what the class indicates the content of the noun to be:
Counting system
The Pulaar counting system is base five (a quinary-decimal system) which is similar to the surrounding Niger-Congo languages. The number 7, for example, uses the prefix of ''d͡ʒoj'' (5) and the suffix ''ɗiɗi'' (2) becoming ''d͡ʒeeɗiɗi'' (5+2).
Other languages that use this system in West Africa include Pular,
Wolof
Wolof or Wollof may refer to:
* Wolof people, an ethnic group found in Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania
* Wolof language, a language spoken in Senegal, Gambia, and Mauritania
* The Wolof or Jolof Empire, a medieval West African successor of the Mal ...
, Sereer-Sine and East Limba. These quinary-decimal counting languages can be found in the west African regions of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Gambia.
Pulaar and Pular possess almost identical words for numbers, in which every number from 1 to 10 share the exact same name except for 5 (''d͡ʒoj'' for Pulaar and ''d͡ʒowi'' for Pular).
Vowel suffixes
The Pulaar
verb
A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
system contains multiple
suffix
In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry ...
es which can be added to verbs to change their cases. These suffixes include the -''t'' suffixes, the ''-d'' suffixes, the ''-n'' suffixes, and the ''-r'' suffixes. When multiple suffixes are used in a single verb, they follow the 'TDNR' order. This means that -''t'' suffixes go before ''-d'' suffixes which go before ''-n'' suffixes, and ''-r'' suffixes are the last in order .
There are few exceptions to this rule. An example of this is the word ''nyaam-n-id-ii.'' In this word, the ''-n'' suffix goes before the ''-d'' suffix.
''-t suffixes''
the ''-t'' suffix is added to verbs in order to change the case of the verb.
The
allomorph
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term ''allomorph'' describes the realization of phonological variations for a specif ...
s ''-t'' or ''-it'' are added to make a verb retaliative, meaning to do in retaliation for a previous action. For example, ''lata'' (meaning ‘kick’) adds the allomorph -''it to'' become ''lat-it-o'' (meaning ‘kick back’).
The allomorphs ''-t'', ''-it'' or ''-ut'' are added to a verb to make it reversive, meaning to do the opposite of the original verb. For example, ''taara'' (meaning ‘wind’) becomes ''taar-t-a'' (meaning ‘unwind’).
The same allomorphs apply for the repetitive case, meaning the repeating of an action. There are no means of distinguishing between a reversive and a repetitious case other than by observing the context of the sentence.
The allomorphs ''-t'' and ''-it'' are used to make a verb
reflexive, which means to make the object of the action the same as the subject. For example, ''ndaara (''meaning ‘look at’) becomes ''ndaar-t-o (''meaning ‘look at oneself’).
The allomorphs ''-t, -ut'' and ''-it'' are used to show that a verb is completed with intensity. For example, ''yana'' (meaning ‘fall’) becomes ''yan-t-a'' (meaning ‘fall heavily’).
For words such as ‘''yama'' (meaning ‘ask’), the intensive form becomes ''yam-t-a'' (meaning ‘interrogate’) which is also the same form the repetitive case (meaning ‘ask again’). Therefore, ''yam-t-a'' is either one of those cases and therefore cannot be distinguished without taking into account the context of the sentence it is used in.
Cultural influences on language
![Boilat-20-Homme et femme toucoulaures](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Boilat-20-Homme_et_femme_toucoulaures.jpg)
The
Toucouleur people
__NOTOC__
The Tukulor people ( ar, توكولور), also called Toucouleur or Haalpulaar, are a West African ethnic group native to Futa Tooro region of Senegal. There are smaller communities in Mali and Mauritania. The Toucouleur were Islamized ...
(also referred to as Tukulor) are one of the largest Pulaar speaking demographics in West Africa. They are an ethnic group of the
Futa Tooro
Futa Toro (Wolof and ff, Fuuta Tooro ''𞤆𞤵𞥄𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮𞥄𞤪𞤮''; ar, فوتا تورو), often simply the Futa, is a semidesert region around the middle run of the Senegal River. This region is along the border of Senegal and M ...
region encompassing the middle of the Senegal River. The Toucouleur people are heavily influenced by
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, being one of the first black African groups to embrace Islam in the 11th century. Therefore, the Pulaar language has influences from Islam. This influence has led to
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
words being integrated into the Pulaar language.
The vocabulary of the Pulaar language is also influenced by the conservative, family-oriented culture of Pulaar. There are Pulaar words which describe relationships between people. The phrase (literally translated to “following maternal milk”) is used to talk about the responsibilities that one has to maintain their relationship with their family. The word is used to describe one's blood relationship to a family.
Pulaar's noun classes also indicate the influence of the agricultural lifestyle of Fula people. For example, the ''nge'' class of nouns refers to bovines including cow () and heifer (), and the ''ki'' class of nouns refer to trees or objects that are straight upright.
The noun classes relating to themes of agriculture and farming relate to the Toucouleur economy, which consists mainly of raising of stock, crop cultivation and fishing. The Fulɓe people are known for being a semi-nomadic pastoralist group who have a history of cattle-herding, justifying the bovine noun class.
Decline of Language
The Pulaar language is a declining language in West Africa, the surrounding Niger-Congo languages, such as Wolof, are increasing in speakers instead.
A 1987-1988 study of bilingual North Senegalese communities found that the use of Pulaar was decreasing in the younger generation. Pulaar was being replaced by Wolof and
French loan words.
John Hames has argued that the reason for this decline in Pulaar in favour for Wolof and French has come down to the fact that the Wolof culture and Senegalese identity are strongly related. In Western Africa, Wolof language is often used in "major pop cultural and entertainment products and radio broadcast content".
Wolof interpreters were used from the late sixteenth century with the
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
, therefore Wolof maintained a position in West Africa as the language of trade. Wolof also hold religious importance in West Africa as the
Mouride Muslim Sufi order holds its capital in
Touba
Touba (Hassaniya Arabic: , 'Felicity'; Wolof: Tuubaa) is a city in central Senegal, part of Diourbel Region and Mbacké district. With a population of 529,176 in 2010, it is the second most populated Senegalese city after Dakar. It is the holy ...
, which is a predominately Wolof-speaking zone.
The Mouride population constitutes 3-5 million people in Senegal (the population of Senegal is around 16 million). Fiona McLaughlin argues that this economic and cultural hegemony that the Wolof have is at the expense of the Pulaar language. She states that people in Senegal will call themselves Wolof, despite not being ethnically Wolof, because it is the only language that they learned.
Hames claims that the prevalence of Wolof in Senegalese culture as well as the lack of government intervention to maintain Pulaar as a contemporary language has led to its decline.
Hames has argued that the regime of Mauritanian president Moctar Ould Daddah has helped decrease the prevalence of Pulaar. Hames states that the Moor supportive presidency of Daddah led to an increase of Arab education over education of native languages. One of the more notable examples of this is when the Mauritanian government passed a law in 1965 that made it mandatory to teach Arabic during primary and secondary education.
Efforts to revive language
The ''Association pour la Renaissance du Pulaar- Republique Islamique de Mauritanie (''ARP-RIM) was established to teach Pulaar literacy in Mauritania. The organisation received increased government funding after the
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
of the then president of Mauritania,
Moktar Ould Daddah
Moktar Ould Daddah ( ar, مختار ولد داداه, Mukhtār Wald Dāddāh; December 25, 1924 – October 14, 2003) was a Mauritanian politician who led the country after it gained its independence from France. Daddah served as the country's ...
in the late 1970s. The programs which the ARP-RIM participated in included campaigns to increase Pulaar literacy, this was done by creating more radio programmes which taught the local languages of Mauritania.
As The ARP-RIM also focused on applying the Pulaar language to primary education as it allocated Pulaar teachers to public schools in Mauritania.
The efforts to revive Pulaar in Mauritania were reduced after the
1984 coup d'état of then president of Mauritania, Mohamaed Khouna Ould Haidilla, by Colonel
Maaouya Ould Sid’Ahmed Taya. In response to the coup d'état, the
Manifesto of the Oppressed Black Mauritanian The Manifesto of the Oppressed Black Mauritanian (french: Le Manifeste du Négro-Mauritanien Opprimé) was published in April, 1986 by the African Liberation Forces of Mauritania, a paramilitary group which promoted the rights of the oppressed Black ...
was published in 1986 which criticized the perceived power and influence of the Arab minority in Mauritania. After the publishing of this manifesto, crackdowns by the government against Pulaar speaker and teachers increased.
Political imprisonments against the Pulaar people increased, notably Djigo Tafsirou, who was a Pulaar language activist, was arrested and died in detention after 2 years of imprisonment.
The ''Ministère de l’Éducation de Base et des Langues Nationales'' in 1986, (becoming the ''Ministère de l’Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales'' in 2001) was established by the Senegal government as a means to boost the influence of the local languages of Senegal (including Pulaar). It did this by increasing the literacy amongst its users.
Non-government companies that have aided the influence of the Pulaar language include the cotton producing company in West Africa, SODEFITEX. SODEFITEX has implemented local languages in their training courses for local farmers. A way this has been achieved is by creating radio programmes in local languages to reinforce Pulaar to local employees.
International development agencies have increasingly decided to focus on the use of local languages in West Africa to communicate ideas and governance. This is done as a means to increase local governance in regional areas of West Africa. These agencies include
World Vision International
World Vision International is an evangelical Christian humanitarian aid, development, and advocacy organization. It prefers to present itself as interdenominational and also employs staff from non-evangelical Christian denominations. It was ...
and
Tostan
Tostan (meaning "breakthrough" in Wolof) is a US-registered 501(c)(3) international non-governmental organization headquartered in Dakar, Senegal. The organization's mission is "to empower communities to develop and achieve their vision for the ...
. For instance, the provision of basic literacy of Pulaar is one of the main focuses of Tostan.
The government of Senegal has also had talks about creating an academy for national languages.
Mauritanian mathematician Mouhamadou Sy has published two math texbooks
in Pulaar.
References
{{Languages of Senegal
Fula language
Fula language
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stre ...
Fula language
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stre ...
Fula language
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stre ...
Fula language
Fula ,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh also known as Fulani or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 30 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stre ...
Toucouleur language