Pseudophryne Pengilleyi
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Corroboree frogs ( ) comprise two species of frog native to the Southern Tablelands of Australia. Both species are small, poisonous ground-dwelling
frog A frog is any member of a diverse and largely Carnivore, carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order (biology), order Anura (ανοὐρά, literally ''without tail'' in Ancient Greek). The oldest fossil "proto-f ...
s. The two species are the southern corroboree frog (''Pseudophryne corroboree'') and the northern corroboree frog (''Pseudophryne pengilleyi''). They are unique among frogs in that they produce their own poison rather than obtain it from their food source as is the case in every other poisonous frog species.


Description

The northern form of the corroboree frog deviates slightly in having narrow yellow to greenish stripes and is slightly smaller.


Distribution

The corroboree frogs have historically only been found in a few patches across two regions of the
Australian Capital Territory The Australian Capital Territory (commonly abbreviated as ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a landlocked federal territory of Australia containing the national capital Canberra and some surrounding townships. ...
(ACT) and southern
New South Wales ) , nickname = , image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , es ...
(NSW), and these areas have contracted significantly in recent years. Southern corroboree frog lives at altitudes of above sea level, historically in an area now within
Kosciuszko National Park The Kosciuszko National Park () is a national park and contains mainland Australia's highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko, for which it is named, and Cabramurra, the highest town in Australia. Its borders contain a mix of rugged mountains and wildern ...
in the
Snowy Mountains The Snowy Mountains, known informally as "The Snowies", is an IBRA subregion in southern New South Wales, Australia, and is the tallest mountain range in mainland Australia, being part of the continent's Great Dividing Range cordillera system ...
of NSW, from Smiggin Holes in the south, and northwards to the Maragle Range. Northern corroboree frogs live above sea level, in three distinct regions, with the frogs displaying three distinct genetic characteristics. These populations live in the following areas: spanning the Fiery Range and Bogong Peaks in Kosciuszko National Park, the Bondo, Micalong and Wee Jasper State Forests in NSW; along the Brindabella Ranges in Namadgi National Park in the ACT; and
Bimberi Nature Reserve The Bimberi Nature Reserve is a state park, protected nature reserve located in the Brindabella Ranges, Brindabella Range of New South Wales, in eastern Australia. The reserve is situated approximately south west of Canberra, which is in the Au ...
and
Brindabella National Park Brindabella National Park is an national park in New South Wales, Australia, that is located approximately southwest of Sydney central business district in the Brindabella Range. Much of the eastern boundary of the national park forms part of t ...
in NSW.


Biology


Reproduction

;Southern corroboree frog (''Pseudophryne corroboree'') Critically Endangered (CR) Sexual maturity of ''P. corroboree'' is reached at four years of age, with one year as an embryo/tadpole and two years as a juvenile/subadult. Adults primarily have only one breeding season. Breeding occurs around December terrestrially near shallow pools, fens, seepages, wet grassland or wet heaths, where the males build chamber nests within the grasses and moss. Males compete for females via song. Each male will attract up to ten females to his burrow sequentially and may dig a new burrow if his first is filled with eggs. The female lays up to 38 eggs and the male grasps her and deposits sperm directly onto the eggs. Tadpoles develop but remain within the protective egg coat until hatching occurs when high ground-water levels after rain cause the nest to become flooded at 4 to 6 months. Tadpole development takes six to eight months. Metamorphosis occurs between December and February. ;Northern corroboree frog (''Pseudophryne pengilleyi'') Endangered (EN) ''P. pengilleyi'' prefers to breed in sphagnum bogs and wet heath in sub-alpine areas and dense patches of herbs in openings or seepages amongst fallen tussocks at lower elevation (
bog A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg; a ...
pools at high altitudes above and in shallow seepage pools in gullies at lower altitudes of ). Other reproductive details are as for ''P. corroboree''. Both species are restricted to mountain and sub-alpine woodlands, heathlands and grasslands. Non-breeding habitat for both species occurs in forest, woodland and heath adjacent to breeding sites.


Diet

The typical diet of a mature southern corroboree frog includes beetles, mites, ants and insect larvae. However, as tadpoles they also tend to eat algae and other small pieces of organic material found in their pools.


Toxicity

Corroboree frogs are the first vertebrates discovered that are able to produce their own poisonous
alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
, as opposed to obtaining it via diet as many other frogs do. The alkaloid is secreted from the skin as a defence against predation, and potentially against skin infections by microbes. It has been described as potentially lethal to mammals if ingested. The unique alkaloid produced has been named pseudo-phrynamine.


Behaviour

Corroboree frogs are quite unusual in their nature. Not only do they not start breeding until four years of age, they also
hibernate Hibernation is a state of minimal activity and metabolic depression undergone by some animal species. Hibernation is a seasonal heterothermy characterized by low body-temperature, slow breathing and heart-rate, and low metabolic rate. It most ...
during winter under whatever shelter they can find. This may be snow gum trees, or bits of bark or fallen leaves. Males stay with the egg nests and may breed with many females over the course of one season.


Conservation status

The southern corroboree frog was considered relatively numerous within its very small distribution in the 1970s, as of June 2004 it had an estimated adult population of 64, but suffered declines of up to 80% over the 10 years up to 1989, at which time it was found only within a fragmented region of less than within Kosciuszko National Park. It has been listed as critically endangered since at least 2004 and is considered to be one of Australia's most endangered species. There are fewer than 30 individuals left in the wild . The northern corroboree frog has not suffered as badly as the southern. It is more widely distributed across about of the Brindabella and Fiery Ranges in Namadgi National Park in the ACT, and
Kosciuszko National Park The Kosciuszko National Park () is a national park and contains mainland Australia's highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko, for which it is named, and Cabramurra, the highest town in Australia. Its borders contain a mix of rugged mountains and wildern ...
and
Buccleuch State Forest Buccleuch may refer to: __NOTOC__ Places Australia * Buccleuch County, an administrative division in New South Wales, Australia * Buccleuch, South Australia, a small locality and railway station * County of Buccleuch, an administrative division in S ...
in NSW. In 2004 it was downgraded from an IUCN assessment of critical to endangered.


Cause for decline

The main threats to the survival of the frogs are thought to be infection with the
chytrid Chytridiomycota are a division of zoosporic organisms in the kingdom Fungi, informally known as chytrids. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek ('), meaning "little pot", describing the structure containing unreleased zoöspores. Chytrid ...
fungus and bushfires. Severe bushfires in the Victorian and NSW high country in January 2003 destroyed much of the frogs' remaining habitat, especially the breeding sites and the leaf litter that insulates overwintering adults. The fire affected almost all southern corroboree frog habitat, although later surveys showed that the fire resulted in a lower than expected decline in population.} The 2019–2020 bushfires in Australia destroyed a significant portion of Kosciusko National Park, and killed two-thirds of the southern corroboree frogs contained in specially designed disease-free enclosures built by conservationists. Other threats to the southern species include residential and commercial development (including
ski resort A ski resort is a resort developed for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter sports. In Europe, most ski resorts are towns or villages in or adjacent to a ski area – a mountainous area with pistes (ski trails) and a ski lift system. In North ...
s);
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
(causing
drought A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D.  Jiang, A.  Khan, W.  Pokam Mba, D.  Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
and fires); and
pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the ...
. Other causes such as
habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
from recreational
4WD Four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, refers to a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a transfer case ...
use;
feral animals A feral () animal or plant is one that lives in the wild but is descended from Domestication, domesticated individuals. As with an introduced species, the introduction of feral animals or plants to non-native regions may disrupt ecosystems an ...
; degradation of the frogs' habitat; and increased UV radiation flowing from
ozone layer The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in rela ...
depletion. The drought affects these frogs by drying out their breeding sites so that the breeding cycle, which is triggered by seasonal changes and may require moistening of the bogs in autumn and spring to bring on specific developmental events, is delayed. This may mean that tadpoles have not metamorphosed by late summer when their bogs dry out, and so perish.


Conservation efforts

The Amphibian Research Centre had already begun a rescue programme under which eggs were collected and raised to late tadpole stage before return as close as possible to their collection site. Research is now under way into
captive breeding Captive breeding, also known as captive propagation, is the process of plants or animals in controlled environments, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, botanic gardens, and other conservation facilities. It is sometimes employed to help species that ...
and on which life cycle stage – eggs, tadpoles or adults – promises the best chance of survival following return to the wild. The national parks authorities in the ACT, NSW and Victoria have developed conservation programmes, including a captive husbandry programme at
Tidbinbilla Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve is a protected area, on the fringe of Namadgi National Park. Tidbinbilla is a short drive from the capital city of Australia, Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory. The nature reserve consists of a large val ...
, ACT;
Taronga Zoo Taronga Zoo is a zoo located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, in the suburb of Mosman, on the shores of Sydney Harbour. The opening hours are between 9:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. Taronga is an Aboriginal word meaning 'beautiful water view'. It ...
in Sydney; and at Healesville Sanctuary, by
Zoos Victoria Melbourne Zoo is a zoo in Melbourne, Australia. It is located within Royal Park in Parkville, approximately north of the centre of Melbourne. It is the primary zoo serving Melbourne. The zoo contains more than 320 animal species from Aust ...
. Conservationists have stepped up efforts to increase the population of the southern corroboree frog since the 2019–20 bushfires. In March 2022, 100 frogs were released into the park as part of a joint breeding program between Taronga Zoo, Zoos Victoria, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and the NSW Government's "Saving our Species" program. At this time there are five enclosures for the frogs, with the newest one built to better withstand the effect of fire.


References


External links


Southern Corroboree Frog
(Frogs of Australia)
Southern corroboree frog
(Zoos Victoria)
Northern corroboree frog
(Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve)
Project Corroboree homepage
(Amphibian Research Centre)

(Includes a good picture of frogs' underbellies)
Recovery Plan for the Southern Corroboree Frog
NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, July 2001
Southern Corroboree Frog
(Threatened Species Profile) NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, 1999 {{Taxonbar, from=Q2296149 Pseudophryne Amphibians of New South Wales Amphibians of Victoria (Australia) Amphibians described in 1953 Frogs of Australia Amphibian common names