Proto-Kra

Proto-Kra is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kra languages. It was reconstructed in 2000 by Weera Ostapirat in his Ph.D. dissertation.

Lower-level reconstructions

Ostapirat (2000) provided preliminary phonological reconstructions for several lower-level groupings before attempting a reconstruction of Proto-Kra.

*Proto-Kra
**Proto-South-Western Kra
***Proto-Western Kra ( Gelao, Lachi)
***Proto-Southern Kra ( Laha)
**Proto-Central-East Kra
***Proto-Central Kra ( Paha)
***Proto-Eastern Kra ( Buyang, Qabiao)

Phonology

Consonants

Proto-Kra has a total of 32 consonants, seven of which (marked in green) can occur as syllable finals (Ostapirat 2000:224, 236).

Marc Miyake (2008) Miyake, Marc. 2008
Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials?
(Part

proposes alternative reconstructions for Ostapirat's (2000) Proto-Kra retroflex consonants, suggesting that many of them were actually non-retroflexes that had been influenced by pre-syllables. Some examples of Miyake's (2008) revised Proto-Kra reconstructions are provided below.

* *tsəm 'one' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂəm C)
* *tsun 'teach' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂun A)
* *N-tsu 'pillar' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *m-tʂu A)
* *nok 'bird' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳok D)
* *nui 'snow' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳui A)
* *nəl 'fat' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *(m-)ɳəl A)
* *CV-nəŋh 'salty' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʔ-ɳəŋ B)
* *na 'thick' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *C-na A)
* *nak 'give' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *nak D)
* *klep 'fingernail' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʈ-lep D)
* *(k/tV-)loŋ 'vegetable' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɖ-loŋ A)

Additionally, Miyake (2008) revises Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *pwl- as *CV-pl-, *bwl- as *CV-bl-, *m-pl- as *pl-, *(p/d/k)-l- as *(p/d/k)V-l-, *ʈ-l- as k-l-, and *ɖ-l- as *(k/tV)-l-.

Vowels

Proto-Kra has a total of 6 vowels (Ostapirat 2000:235).

Proto-Kra has 4 diphthongs, which are not found in closed syllables.
*
*
*
*

Tones

Proto-Kra had an A–B–C–D tonal system typical of other Tai–Kadai languages (''see Proto-Tai language#Tones''). The tonal descriptions below are from Ostapirat (2000:237).

# *A: *A is one of the most common tones.
# *B: *B and *D are phonetically similar, as reflexes of tone *D are often the same as those of *B. This regularly occurs in all Kra languages except for Qabiao.
# *C: *C is usually accompanied by glottal constriction and may have originally had a creaky or tense laryngeal quality. Some Gelao varieties and Yalang Buyang display the same reflex for *B and *C.
# *D: *D is the only tone to occur exclusively in closed syllables.

The following table of phonetic characteristics of Proto-Kra tones was adapted from Ostapirat (2000:237).

Lexicon

Below are reconstructed Proto-Kra forms from Ostapirat (2000).

;Body parts and bodily functions
* *tai^C 'armpit (1)'
* *lje^A 'armpit (2)'
* *mum^C 'beard'
* *hmok^D 'belly'
* *plat^D 'blood (1)'
* *kɣa^C 'blood (2)'
* *plaɯ^C 'boil (n.)'
* *dək^D 'bone'
* *m-la^B 'cheek/face'
* *tək^D 'chest'
* *kaŋ^C 'chin'
* *k-ra^A 'ear'
* *kai^C 'excrement (1)'
* *ʔik^D 'excrement (2)'
* *m-ʈa^A 'eye'
* *C-tot^D 'fart'
* *ʈ-lep^D 'fingernail'
* *kok^D 'foot'
* *C-dəŋ^A 'forehead'
* *m-di^A 'gall bladder'
* *mot^D 'hair'
* *m-səm^A 'hair (head)'
* *mja^A 'hand'
* *krai^B 'head'
* *hlul^C 'heart'
* *C-si^C 'intestine'
* *C-ku^B 'knee'
* *C-ka^A 'leg'
* *təp^D 'liver'
* *ʔaɯ^C 'meat'
* *ŋuŋ^A 'mouth (1)'
* *mul^B 'mouth (2)'
* *m-ɖaɯ^A 'navel'
* *C-jo^A 'neck'
* *hŋət^D 'nose (1)'
* *teŋ^C 'nose (2)'
* *hŋwu^B 'pus'
* *t-ru^B 'saliva'
* *m-ba^B 'shoulder'
* *kwau^B 'skin (1)'
* *ta^A 'skin (2)'
* *boŋ^A 'skin (3)'
* *hloŋ^A 'stomach'
* *ʒa^C 'tear (n.)'
* *ɣwjən^A 'tendon (1)'
* *ŋen^A 'tendon (2)'
* *t-roŋ^A 'throat (1)'
* *kɣe^A 'throat (2)'
* *l-ma^A 'tongue'
* *l-pən^A 'tooth (1)'
* *C-tʃuŋ^A 'tooth (2)'
* *t-lu^C 'waist'

;Animals
* *mot^D 'ant'
* *C-me^A 'bear'
* *re^A 'bee'
* *ɳok^D 'bird'
* *kwai^A 'buffalo'
* *ku^C 'cat (wild)'
* *ki^A 'chicken'
* *ni^A 'cow'
* *d-rat^D 'crab'
* *ʔak^D 'crow (n.)'
* *dit^D 'deer'
* *x-ma^A 'dog'
* *blaɯ^A 'duck (1)'
* *kap^D 'duck (2)'
* *ʈəm^A 'egg'
* *p-la^A 'fish'
* *x-mət^D 'flea'
* *me^C 'goat'
* *d-laŋ^C 'hawk'
* *C-ku^A 'horn'
* *ŋja^C 'horse'
* *C-ʈu^A 'louse (head)'
* *m-drəl^A 'louse (body)'
* *kʒət^D 'maggot'
* *tai^C 'monkey (1)'
* *krok^D 'monkey (2)'
* *m-lu^A 'monkey (gibbon)'
* *dʒaŋ^A 'mosquito'
* *x-mu^A 'pig'
* *hlai^C 'rat'
* *tʃui^A 'shellfish'
* *C-tʃot^D 'tail'
* *ŋa^A 'snake'
* *(k-)di^A 'tiger'
* *gwja^A 'wing'

;Plants
* *tok^D 'banana'
* *m-te^C 'beans'
* *m-pwa^B 'bran'
* *ka^A 'cogon grass'
* *m-tiŋ^A 'cucumber'
* *C-kən^A 'ear of grain'
* *hŋa^C 'flower (1)'
* *bal^A 'flower (2)'
* *C-mak^D 'fruit'
* *C-sui^B 'garlic (1)'
* *kɣa^A 'garlic (2)'
* *kɣiŋ^A 'ginger'
* *t-laɯ^A 'grass/tobacco'
* *ɖiŋ^A 'leaf'
* *l-ka^A 'mushroom'
* *ca^A 'paddy (grain)'
* *m-pləŋ^A 'peach'
* *mla(ɯ)^C 'rice (cooked)'
* *sal^A 'rice (husked)'
* *kʒaŋ^A 'rice'
* *tsaŋ^A 'root'
* *pe^A 'seed'
* *l-ŋa^A 'sesame'
* *ʒaŋ^A 'sorghum'
* *p-ɣak^D 'taro (1)'
* *rwau^C 'taro (2)'
* *ŋjan^C 'thorn'
* *ti^A 'tree'
* *ɖ-loŋ^A 'vegetable (1)'
* *ʔop^D 'vegetable (2)'
* *məl^A 'yam'

;Nature
* *m-tu^B1 'ash'
* *la^B 'coal'
* *muk^D 'cloud/fog'
* *lu^B 'earth'
* *ʔut^D 'earth (soil/mud)'
* *na^A 'field (wet)'
* *za^C 'field (dry)'
* *pui^A 'fire'
* *sui^A 'firewood'
* *l-me^A 'frost'
* *tsep^D 'hail'
* *kjəl^C 'iron'
* *m-ɖjan^A 'moon (1)'
* *(C-)tjan^A 'moon (2)'
* *dʐu^A 'mountain'
* *mon^A 'rain'
* *jəl^A 'rain'
* *kron^A 'road'
* *t-la^B 'rock (1)'
* *ʔuŋ^A 'rock (2)'
* *p-ra^A 'rock (3)'
* *hŋai^A 'sand'
* *praɯ^B 'silver (1)'
* *ŋjən^A 'silver (2)'
* *m-kwən^A 'smoke'
* *ɳui^A 'snow'
* *d-luŋ^A 'star'
* *t-laŋ^A 'sunlight'
* *(l-)wən^A 'sun'
* *ʔuŋ^C 'water'
* *gwjən^A 'wind'

;Material culture
* *kwan^A 'ax'
* *da^A 'boat'
* *dzaɯ^B/C 'chopsticks'
* *C-ʃe^A 'comb'
* *trau^C 'den/nest'
* *x-ŋo^A 'door'
* *d-luŋ^A 'drum'
* *t-lop^D 'hat (bamboo)'
* *kran^A 'house'
* *kwli^A 'ladder (1)'
* *kɣuŋ^A 'ladder (2)'
* *plu^A 'liquor (1)'
* *C-ka^C 'liquor (2)'
* *t-laɯ^A 'medicine'
* *dru^A 'mortar'
* *ŋlot^D 'needle'
* *tsak^D 'pestle'
* *m-tʂu^A 'pillar'
* *hɲe^A 'pillow'
* *C-ʃak^D 'rope'
* *ɲo^A 'salt'
* *gwaŋ^A 'sieve'
* *ʔen^C 'skirt'
* *ʒun^B 'thread'
* *mɣai^A 'village'

;Kinship and pronouns
* *tai^A 'brother (elder)'
* *ʒaɯ^B 'brother (younger)'
* *lak^D 'child'
* *ba^A 'father'
* *pa^B1 'father'
* *m-li^B 'female-in-law'
* *klal^A 'grandchild'
* *m-pau^B 'grandfather'
* *ja^C 'grandmother'
* *ku^A 'I (1)'
* *ʔe^A 'I (2)'
* *C-paɯ^C 'male/husband'
* *se^A 'male/husband'
* *dʒu^C 'male-in-law'
* *mai^C 'mother'
* *n(ʒ)i^A 'name'
* *bɣuŋ^C 'orphan'
* *pi^C 'sister (elder)'
* *ʔon^C 'sister (younger)'
* *ŋun^A 'spirit'
* *r-maŋ^A 'spirit'
* *ʒan^A 'strength'
* *t-ɣu^A 'we'
* *ʔ-nau^A/C 'who'
* *mə^A/B 'you'

;Adjectives
* *kəm^A 'bitter'
* *hl/dəm^A 'black'
* *ʔaŋ^C 'bright'
* *ŋəl^C 'deaf'
* *(h)lək^D 'deep'
* *r-me^A 'drunk'
* *kʒa^B 'dry'
* *k-li^A 'far'
* *(m-)ɳəl^A 'fat'
* *m-tik^D 'full'
* *ʔai^A 'good'
* *kʒəl^A 'heavy'
* *piŋ^C 'hot'
* *dok^D 'itchy'
* *pren^A 'lazy'
* *kʒa^C 'light (not heavy)'
* *ri^C 'long'
* *ʔi^B 'many'
* *d-la^C 'near'
* *mal^A 'new'
* *ku^B 'old (1)'
* *kja^C/B 'old (2)'
* *(k-)ɖep^D 'raw'
* *ŋ(w)a^B 'real'
* *hŋwu^B 'ripe'
* *roŋ^B 'rotten'
* *ʔ-ɳəŋ^B 'salty'
* *tʃi^B 'satiated'
* *ɖjel^C/B 'shallow'
* *hɲan^C 'short (not long 1)'
* *ti^C 'short (not long 2)'
* *ta^B/C 'short (not tall)'
* *gjaɯ^C 'skinny'
* *bwlat^D 'sour'
* *ʔet^D 'small'
* *mu^B 'smelly'
* *tjel^C 'sweet'
* *k-ɣwaŋ^A 'tall'
* *C-na^A 'thick'
* *ɣwə^C 'thin'
* *tu^C 'warm (1)'
* *ʔun^B 'warm (2)'
* *rək^D 'wet'
* *r-ʔuk^D 'white'
* *C-ŋil^C 'yellow'

;Verbs
* *p-la^A 'afraid'
* *pluŋ^C 'alive'
* *tsi^C 'ask'
* *m-plau^B 'bark (v.)'
* *ʔap^D 'bathe'
* *ʈai^B 'bite'
* *rəm^C 'bite'
* *tsol^A 'buy'
* *pa^C 'carry on back (1)'
* *m-blik^D 'carry on back (2)'
* *s-le^B 'choose'
* *kləp^D 'close eye (1)'
* *nəp^D 'close eye (2)'
* *(C-)ma^A 'come'
* *m-duŋ^A 'come (return)'
* *ɖəŋ^A 'crow (v.)'
* *te^C 'cut (1)'
* *hrən^C 'cut (2)'
* *caɯ^C 'descend (1)'
* *d-loŋ^A 'descend (2)'
* *pɣon^A 'die'
* *du^A 'do'
* *l-pən^A 'dream'
* *hrom^C 'drink'
* *m-ʈak^D 'dry in sun'
* *kan^A 'eat'
* *tok^D 'fall'
* *t-lui^A 'flow'
* *dəp^D 'forget'
* *nak^D 'give'
* *pwən^B 'get (1)'
* *m-to^B 'get (2)'
* *ɣwa^C 'go'
* *kəm^C 'hatch'
* *ʔən^A 'have'
* *dʒək^D 'hear'
* *kom^A 'hold in mouth (1)'
* *ʔom^A 'hold in mouth (2)'
* *p-ɣon^A 'kill'
* *so^A 'know'
* *k-so^A 'laugh'
* *lim^C 'lick'
* *(h)ŋwai^A/B 'love'
* *təm^C 'plant (v.)'
* *bet^D 'pluck'
* *(ʔ)jəŋ^A/C 'rest'
* *ʔi^B 'scold (1)'
* *kən^C 'scold (2)'
* *hɲan^B 'scold (3)'
* *kai^A 'see'
* *ti^C 'see (look)'
* *s-ɣwi^A 'sell'
* *səl^B 'shake/shiver'
* *d-ri^C 'sick'
* *ŋu^B 'sleep (1)'
* *ʔu^B 'sleep (2)'
* *mu^B 'smell'
* *pɣa^B 'split (1)'
* *de^B 'split (2)'
* *lum^C 'steal'
* *tsu^C 'steam (v.)'
* *d-lwal C/A 'swallow (v.)'
* *klut^D 'take off'
* *tʂun^A 'teach'
* *hŋa(ɯ)^A 'wait'
* *C-pwi^A 'walk'
* *le^C 'wear'
* *ɲit^D 'weep'

;Space, time, and deictics
* *lju^A 'above'
* *lon^A 'back/behind'
* *dəŋ^C 'back/behind'
* *kun^A 'before/front'
* *ɲun^B/C 'below'
* *(h)wən^A 'day'
* *t-luŋ^C 'inside'
* *mjaŋ^B 'left'
* *m-ɖjan^A 'month'
* *ri^C 'outside'
* *(x-)mit^D 'right'
* *ʔ-ɲa^C/B 'that'
* *ʔ-ni^C/B 'this'
* *m-(p)ɣiŋ^A 'year'

;Numerals
* *tʂəm^C 'one'
* *sa^A 'two'
* *tu^A 'three'
* *pə^A 'four'
* *r-ma^A 'five'
* *x-nəm^A 'six'
* *t-ru^A 'seven'
* *m-ru^A 'eight'
* *s-ɣwa^B 'nine'
* *pwlot^D 'ten'
* *kjən^A 'hundred'

Notes

References

*Chen, Y.-L. (2018). ''Proto-Ong-Be''. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
*Hsiu, Andrew. 2017
Potential loanwords in Kra

* Miyake, Marc. 2018
Chu and Kra-Dai

* Miyake, Marc. 2013. The other Kra-Dai numerals (Part
1
.
* Miyake, Marc. 2013
Proto-Kra 'seven'

* Miyake, Marc. 2013
Retroflexion or lenition?: Kra-Dai 'eye'

* Miyake, Marc. 2013
Thurgood's "Tai-Kadai and Austronesian: the nature of the historical relationship" (1994)

* Miyake, Marc. 2012
''t'' for *''p'' in Vietnamese

* Miyake, Marc. 2011
Dating Proto-Kra-Dai: the clue of the old chicken

* Miyake, Marc. 2008
Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials?
(Part


* Miyake, Marc. 2008
Correspondences between Proto-Kra and Proto-Tai implosives

* Miyake, Marc. 2008
From presyllables to Proto-Kra clusters?
* Miyake, Marc. 2008
Proto-Kra presyllables and clusters with labial stops
* Miyake, Marc. 2008
Were Kra words for 'chopsticks' borrowed from Chinese?
* Miyake, Marc. 2008
布央 Cloth center consonants

* Miyake, Marc. 2008
Limited knowledge only gets you *''so'' far

* Miyake, Marc. 2008
What's *''so'' funny about knowledge?
*Ostapirat, Weera. 2000.
Proto-Kra
" ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area'' 23 (1): 1-251.
*Ostapirat, Weera. (2009)
Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c
''Journal of Language and Culture, 28''(2), 41-56.
*Ostapirat, Weera. (2013)
The Rime System of Proto-Tai
''Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 7''(1), 189-227.
*Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. (2009)
''The Phonology of Proto-Tai (Doctoral dissertation)''.
Cornell University.

See also

*Proto-Austronesian language
*Proto-Hlai language
*Proto-Kam–Sui language
*Proto-Tai language
*Austro-Tai languages

External links

ABVD: Proto-Kra word list

ABVD: word lists of Kra-Dai languages

{{Tai-Kadai languages

Kra languages
Kra