Proto-Kam–Sui is the reconstructed ancestor of the

Kam–Sui languages The Kam–Sui languages () are a branch of the Kra–Dai languages spoken by the Kam–Sui peoples. They are spoken mainly in eastern Guizhou, western Hunan, and northern Guangxi in southern China. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also fou ...

Reconstructions

A preliminary of reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui had been undertaken by

Graham Thurgood Graham Thurgood () is a retired professor of linguistics at California State University, Chico. Thurgood graduated with a Ph.D. in linguistics from University of California, Berkeley, where he studied under James Matisoff. Thurgood's areas of ...

(1988).Thurgood, Graham. 1988. "Notes on the reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 179-218. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. Another reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui, mostly based on Thurgood's reconstruction, was accomplished by

Ilia Peiros Ilia Peiros (full name: Ilia Iosifovich Peiros, Илья Иосифович Пейрос; born 1948) is a Russian linguist who specializes in the historical linguistics of East Asia. Peiros is a well-known scholar in the Moscow School of Comparat ...

as part of his reconstruction of Tai-Kadai, which was done without taking the

Kra languages The Kra languages (also known as the Geyang 仡央 or Kadai languages) are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family spoken in southern China (Guizhou, Guangxi, Yunnan) and in northern Vietnam ( Hà Giang Province). Names The name ''Kra'' comes ...

into account.Peiros, Ilia, 1998. "Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia", Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. A new reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui is currently being undertaken by

Peter K. Norquest Peter K. Norquest (born August 31, 1971 in Boise, Idaho) is an American linguist who specializes in Kra–Dai languages, Kra–Dai historical linguistics. Education Norquest attended the University of Arizona's Joint PhD program in Anthropology ...

.Reconstructing Language Change and Variation
Award #0236674,

National Science Foundation The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency of the United States government that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National I ...

History

Liang & Zhang (1996)Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. ''Dongtai yuzu gailun'' 侗台语族概论 / ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. consider western Guangdong to be the original homeland of Proto-Kam–Sui. According to Liang & Zhang (1996:25-29), based on evidence from Chinese written historical records, Kam-Sui languages were originally spoken in western Guangdong, but Kam-Sui peoples later started to migrate out of Guangdong during the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and layi ...

and

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

(from the years 600–800). Sui and Maonan migrations were completed by the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

, around the years 1000–1100, while the Lakkia migrated to their current location in Guangxi from

Huaiji County Huaiji County () is a county of western Guangdong province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Zhaoqing Zhaoqing (), alternately romanized as Shiuhing, is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong Province, China. As ...

and

Fengkai County Fengkai County is a county in western Guangdong Province, China, under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhaoqing. It was formed in 1961 from the merger of Fengchuan and , which were formerly romanized as Fungchuan (Fungchun, ...

, Guangdong during the beginning of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

(years 1300–1400).

Lexicon

Thurgood's (1988: 209–218) reconstructed Proto-Kam–Sui forms are listed below. * *hwaːt⁷ 'angry' * *hnaːn⁵ 'angry' * *taːp⁷ 'to answer' * *mwit⁸ 'ant' * *laːk⁸ 'arm' * *k-xiːn¹ 'arm' * *khjaːk⁷ 'armpit' * *taŋ¹ 'arrive, reach' * *cha⁵ 'ascend' * *phwuːk⁷ 'ashes' * *phlaːu⁵ 'ashes' * *pa³ 'aunt' * *hlaːi¹ 'back(bone)' * *lun² 'back, behind' * *hwaːi⁶ 'bad, cruel' * *thruk⁷ 'bamboo strip' * *xwan¹ 'bamboo' * *pwaŋ⁵ 'bank, shore' * *khrau⁵ 'to bark' * *ɗuŋ³ 'basket, winnowing' * *ʔaːp⁷ 'bathe' * *ʔmuːi¹ 'bear' * *m-luːt⁸ 'beard' * *hȵiŋ¹ 'bedbug' * *mit⁸ 'bee' * *daːŋ² 'bee' * *ʔdlu¹ 'bee, wasp' * *te³ 'below' * *mluk⁸ 'bird' * *krip⁷ 'bite; chew' * *kam¹ 'bitter' * *ʔnam¹ 'black' * *ɓuːt⁷ 'blind' * *phlaːt⁷ 'blood' * *hwaːt⁷ 'blow (wind)' * *dzup⁸ 'to blow' * *thrun¹ 'body' * *tlaːk⁷ 'bone' * *cam³ 'bow, bend' * *duːi⁴ 'bowl, cup' * *ʔŋa⁵ 'branch' * *ciŋ⁵ 'branch' * *praːk⁷ 'break, tear' * **kraːŋ¹ 'bright' * *ɣwaːi⁴ 'brother, older' * *dzuːk⁸ 'to bundle' * *hmuk⁷ 'bury' * *trai³ 'to buy' * *kaːt⁷ 'cabbage' * *laːp⁸ 'candle' * *ʔma⁵ 'carry on back' * *kjap⁷ 'catch, grasp' * *kaːm¹ 'cave' * *khryap⁷ 'centipede' * *tak⁷ 'chest (body)' * *hmaːk⁷ 'to chew' * *hnaːi⁵ 'to chew' * *kaːi⁵ 'chicken' * *hŋlaːŋ⁵ 'young chicken' * *hmaːk⁷ 'to chop' * *pram³ 'to chop' * *khlap⁷ 'close (eyes)' * *m-xwa³ 'cloud' * *hnu¹ 'cold' * *paŋ¹ 'collapse' * *hma¹ 'come; return' * *kjaːp⁷' 'to connect' * *duŋ² 'copper' * *ȵai⁶' 'count' * *hraːŋ⁵ 'a cover' * *khruːi¹ 'cowry (money), shell(fish)' * *hlaːi⁵ 'to crawl' * *da⁶ 'cross, pass' * *ka¹ 'a crow' * *kat⁷ 'to cut' * *kaːt⁷ 'to cut' * *hŋwan¹ 'day' * *ɗak⁷ 'deaf' * *ʔyam¹ 'deep' * *hluːi⁵ 'descend' * *laːi⁴ 'devil, ghost' * *pjai¹ 'to die' * *di⁶ 'dirt, earth' * *ɓja⁵ 'disgusted' * *k-hma¹ 'dog' * *tu¹ 'door' * *gwau² 'dove' * *tak⁷ 'draw water' * *te³ 'draw water' * *pwjan¹ 'dream' * *trwap⁷ 'to drink' * *tuk⁷ 'drop, fall' * *tuk⁷ 'drop, fall' * *dip⁸ 'dull' * *mpraːŋ¹ 'ear of grain' * *khra¹ 'ear' * *khjam¹ 'early' * *caːn¹ 'eat' * *krai⁵ 'egg' * *pjaːt⁷ 'eight' * *phe¹ 'end, tip' * *ʔȵam⁵ 'evening' * *hlik⁷ 'exchange' * *ke⁴ 'excrement' * *mpiŋ¹ 'expensive' * *ɗap⁷ 'extinguish' * *thla¹ 'eye' * *ʔna³ 'face, in front' * *lai⁴ 'to fall' * *klaːi¹ 'far' * *tut⁷ 'fart' * *gjaːŋ⁴ 'feed, raise' * *traːi⁵ 'dry field' * *ʔra⁵ 'paddy field' * *ʔdlyap⁷? 'fingernail' * *pwai¹ 'fire' * *kuːn⁵ 'first' * *mlit⁸ 'fish (

loach Loaches are fish of the superfamily Cobitoidea. They are freshwater, benthic (bottom-dwelling) fish found in rivers and creeks throughout Eurasia and northern Africa. Loaches are among the most diverse groups of fish; the 1249 known species of C ...

)' * *mprai³ 'fish' * *pa¹ 'fish' * *mum⁶ 'fish' * *ŋu⁴ 'five' * *k-hmat⁷ 'flea' * *naːn⁴ 'flesh, meat' * *nuk⁷'' 'flower' * *muk⁸ 'fog' * *praːk⁷ 'forehead' * *ɗuŋ¹ 'forest' * *laːm² 'to forget' * *kup⁷ 'field frog' * *k-wai³ 'small frog' * *tiːk⁷ 'full' * *ɗai³ 'to get, gain' * *ʔȵaːk⁷ 'gills' * *khjaːi¹ 'to give' * *ʔuːk⁷ 'to go out, out' * *paːi¹ 'to go, walk' * *mwaːŋ¹ 'god, ghost' * *ɗaːi¹ 'good' * *gju⁴ 'granary' * *khlaːn¹ 'grandchild' * *thrak⁷ 'grasshopper' * *pram¹ 'hair, head' * *k-mja¹ 'hand' * **kra³ 'hard' * *pram¹ 'to hatch' * *ʔnaŋ¹ 'to have' * *me² 'to have' * *kru³ 'head' * *dai² 'to hit' * *ʔŋam¹ 'to hold in mouth' * *ʔuːm³ 'hold (child)' * *ȵam¹ 'to hold' * *hŋuːm³ 'to hold' * *m-kwaːu¹ 'horn' * *ma⁴ 'horse' * *hraːn¹ 'house' * *ɓjaːk⁷ 'hungry' * *ʔre¹ 'husband' * *mpaːk⁷ 'insane' * *ȵak⁸ 'to insert' * *tshaːp⁷ 'to insert' * *khjaːi³ 'intestine' * *khlit⁷ 'iron' * *daːp⁸ 'to kick' * *gruk⁸ 'to kneel' * *miːt⁸ 'knife' * *mbra⁴ 'knife, sword' * *khwe¹ 'late' * *kru¹ 'to laugh' * *khlut⁷ 'lazy' * *laːn⁴ 'lazy' * *pwa⁵ 'leaf' * *ʔniŋ³ 'to lean' * *mpliŋ¹ 'leech' * *kla¹ 'left over' * *kwa¹ 'leg' * *tiːn¹ 'leg, foot' * *lja²? 'lick' * *ljaːm⁵? 'lick' * *ɓau¹ 'light, to float' * *ʔdlaːp⁷ 'lightning' * *maŋ⁴ 'to like' * *tap⁷ 'liver' * *ʔraːi³ 'long' * *kraːk⁷ 'loom' * *tuk⁷ 'to lose, misplace' * *nan¹'' 'louse' * *mprai¹ 'louse, chicken' * *mprum¹ 'to love (child)' * *thram⁵ 'low' * **ʔnuːn¹ 'maggot' * *mpaːn¹ 'male (person)' * *ʔme¹ 'mark' * *hle¹ 'mark' * *mpraːŋ¹ 'mat (straw)' * *ŋe² 'meal, early' * *mbrau² 'meal, late' * *gja² 'medicine, to cure' * *ta⁵ 'middle' * *muːn⁶ 'monkey' * *nüaːn¹'' 'moon, month' * *hjit⁷ 'morning' * *paːk⁷ 'mouth' * *muːk⁸ 'mucus' * *khlum⁵ 'mud, dirt' * *naːm⁵ 'mud, dirt' * *hŋla¹ 'mushroom' * *taːk⁷ 'to nail' * *ɓlwa¹ 'navel' * *phlai⁵ 'near' * *ke¹ 'net (to cast)' * *hmai⁵ 'new' * *ʔnaŋ¹ 'nose, face' * *man² 'oil' * *kaːu⁵ 'old (things)' * *ke⁵ 'old (vegetables)' * *ɓjaːn³ 'otter, beaver' * *chaːt⁷ 'otter, beaver' * *ʔŋluːk⁷ 'outside' * *phwa³ 'palm (hand)' * *lin⁶ 'pangolin' * *laːk⁸ 'person, child' * *kjaːk⁷ 'pestle' * *cup⁷ 'to pick up' * *ɓit⁷ 'to pick (flowers)' * *laːi⁶ 'to pick, select' * *k-hmu⁵ 'pig' * *ʔdlaːi⁵ 'wild pig' * *dap⁸ 'to pile' * *ʔlaːu¹ 'pillar' * *liːn² 'pipe, water' * *ljum² 'to plant' * *mpra¹ 'to plant' * *ʔdram¹ 'to transplant' * *pwak⁷ 'pod, sheath' * *hŋlaːn¹ 'shoulder pole' * *ʔmiːn³ 'porcupine, wild pig' * *ʔdlaːk⁷ 'to pull' * *zuk⁸ 'pus' * *kat⁷ 'to put' * *naːŋ¹ 'raft, bamboo' * *xwin¹ 'to rain' * *hnu³ 'rat, mouse' * *ɗip⁷ 'raw, live' * *duk⁸ 'to read' * *hwa¹ 'right side' * *zuk⁸ 'ripe, cooked' * *hma³ 'to rise (river)' * *ʔnja¹ 'river' * *pra¹ 'rock, cliff' * *kjaːŋ¹ 'root' * *ʔlaːk⁷ 'rope' * *laːn⁶ 'to rot' * *naːu⁶ 'rotten' * **krin⁵ 'scales' * *khjaːn⁵ 'to scare' * *tak⁷ 'to scoop' * *ʔlun¹ 'to see' * *ɗai³ 'to see' * *pwan¹ 'seed' * *kla³ 'rice seedling' * *kwe¹ 'to sell' * *ʔŋra¹ 'sesame' * *tau¹ 'shadow' * *ŋaːu² 'to shake' * *m-hliːn⁵? 'shallow' * *hraːi⁵ 'be sharp' * *gwan² 'to sharpen' * *khjam¹ 'sharpened, pointed' * *ɗau⁵ 'spiral shell' * *thrin³ 'short' * *pjau⁵ 'shuttle' * *nu⁴ 'younger sibling' * *ʔram¹ 'to sink' * *dzuːi⁶ 'to sit' * *ljuk⁸ 'six' * *hŋra¹ 'skin' * *ʔrwum¹? 'skinny, lean' * *ɓun¹ 'sky' * *nuːn² 'to sleep' * *nun⁴ 'to smell' * *dzuːi² 'snake' * *ʔnuːi¹ 'snow' * *hma⁵ 'soak, pickle' * *maːt⁸ 'socks' * *ʔma³ 'soft' * *khjum³ 'sour' * *tljaːi³? 'sparrow' * *m-hljaːn⁵ 'spicy (hot)' * *pha⁵ 'to split' * *hmaːk⁷ 'to split' * *ŋa² 'sprout, a' * *khlak⁷ 'stake, post' * *ʔdraːu¹ 'star' * *hmlut⁷ 'star' * *ŋjaːu⁶ 'to stay, live' * *hljak⁷ 'to steal' * *luŋ² 'stomach' * *mpwaːŋ¹ 'straw' * *kruːi³ 'stream' * *kjak⁷ 'to stuff' * *hwit⁷' 'to stuff' * *ʔuːi³ 'sugar cane' * *ʔiːn⁵ 'a swallow' * *phjit⁷? 'to sweep' * *khwaːn¹ 'sweet' * *khjut⁷ 'tail' * *ʔaːu¹ 'to take' * *ɓraːk⁷ 'taro' * *ʔna¹ 'thick' * *ʔnak⁷ 'thick, viscous' * *ɓwaːŋ¹ 'thin' * *naːi⁶ 'this' * *tiːn³ 'thunder' * *lai⁶ 'thunder' * *pra³ 'thunder, lightning' * *mum⁴ 'tiger' * *khwe³ 'tired' * *ʔni⁵ 'tired' * *ma² 'tongue' * *pjwan¹ 'tooth' * *hȵa⁵ 'trace, dregs' * *mai⁴ 'tree, wood' * *kjaːt⁷ 'to twist' * *hra¹ 'two' * *ta¹ 'uncle' * *kam³ 'upside down' * *juŋ⁶ 'to use' * *ʔma¹ 'vegetable' * *hruːi¹ 'vestige' * *ɓaːn³ 'village' * *trwak⁷ 'to vomit' * *kra³ 'to wait' * *chaːm³ 'to walk, crawl' * *aːu¹ 'to want' * *ʔlak⁷ 'to wash clothes' * *zuːk 'to wash hands' * *ȵam³ 'water' * *traːu¹ 'we (incl.)' * *tan³ 'to wear' * *tam³ 'to weave' * *kjaːn¹ 'to weave, plait' * *ne¹'' 'to weed' * *ʔȵe³ 'to weep, cry' * *ɓun⁵ 'well, spring' * *ɓu⁵ 'well, spring' * *thlam¹ 'well, pond, pool' * *ʔrak⁷ 'wet' * *hlwum¹ 'wind' * *khlaːu³ 'rice wine' * *pwa⁵ 'wing' * *ɓjaːk⁷ 'woman, girl' * *trit⁷ '(fire)wood' * *dzan⁴ 'worm' * *tuːk⁷ 'to wrap, bundle' * *ɓjuːt⁷? 'to wring towel' * *kjaːt⁷ 'to write' * *man² 'yam' * *mpe¹ 'year' * *ɓjaːk⁷ 'woman, girl' * *trit⁷ '(fire)wood' * *dzan⁴ 'worm' * *tuːk⁷ 'to wrap, bundle' * *ɓjuːt⁷? 'to wring towel' * *kjaːt⁷ 'to write' * *man² 'yam' * *mpe¹ 'year'

Comparison with Proto-Tai

Some Proto-Kam-Sui lexical items are cognate with Proto-Tai but differ in proto-tone. Reconstructions are those of Norquest (2021).

Footnotes

References

*Ostapirat, Weera. (2006)
Alternation of tonal series and the reconstruction of Proto-Kam-Sui
In D.-A. Ho et al. (Eds.), ''Linguistics Studies in Chinese and Neighboring Languages'' (pp. 1077-1121). Taipei: Academia Sinica.

External links

Reconstruction of Proto Kam-Sui
by

, hosted at the

SEAlang library The SEAlang Library, established in 2005 as an online library source for Southeast Asian linguistic reference materials, was initially funded from the Technological Innovation and Cooperation for Foreign Information Access (TICFIA) program of the U. ...

{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Kam-Sui language Kam–Sui languages Kam-Sui