physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...

, a pregeometry is a structure from which the

geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...

of the

universe The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. Acc ...

develops. Some

cosmological model Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of f ...

s feature a pregeometric universe before the Big Bang. The term was championed by

John Archibald Wheeler John Archibald Wheeler (July 9, 1911April 13, 2008) was an American theoretical physicist. He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II. Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in e ...

in the 1960s and 1970s as a possible route to a theory of

quantum gravity Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics; it deals with environments in which neither gravitational nor quantum effects can be ignored, such as in the vi ...

. Since

quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, ...

allowed a metric to fluctuate, it was argued that the merging of gravity with quantum mechanics required a set of more fundamental rules regarding

connectivity Connectivity may refer to: Computing and technology * Connectivity (media), the ability of the social media to accumulate economic capital from the users connections and activities * Internet connectivity, the means by which individual terminals, ...

that were independent of

topology In mathematics, topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformations, such ...

and

dimensionality In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordin ...

. Where geometry could describe the properties of a known surface, the physics of a hypothetical region with predefined properties, "pregeometry" might allow one to work with deeper underlying rules of physics that were not so strongly dependent on simplified classical assumptions about the properties of space. No single proposal for pregeometry has gained wide consensus support in the physics community. Some notions related to pregeometry predate Wheeler, other notions depart considerably from his outline of pregeometry but are still associated with it. A 2006 paper provided a survey and critique of pregeometry or near-pregeometry proposals up to that time. A summary of these is given below: ;Discrete spacetime by Hill: A proposal anticipating Wheeler's pregeometry, though assuming some geometric notions embedded in quantum mechanics and

special relativity In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a scientific theory regarding the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's original treatment, the theory is based on two postulates: # The laws o ...

. A subgroup of

Lorentz transformations In physics, the Lorentz transformations are a six-parameter family of linear transformations from a coordinate frame in spacetime to another frame that moves at a constant velocity relative to the former. The respective inverse transformation i ...

with only

rational Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abili ...

coefficients is deployed. Energy and

momentum In Newtonian mechanics, momentum (more specifically linear momentum or translational momentum) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If is an object's mass an ...

variables are restricted to a certain set of rational numbers. Quantum

wave function A wave function in quantum physics is a mathematical description of the quantum state of an isolated quantum system. The wave function is a complex-valued probability amplitude, and the probabilities for the possible results of measurements mad ...

s work out to be a special case semi-periodical functions though the nature of

s is ambiguous since the energy-momentum space cannot be uniquely interpreted. ;Discrete-space structure by Dadic and Pisk: Spacetime as an unlabeled graph whose topological structure entirely characterizes the graph. Spatial points are related to vertices. Operators define the creation or annihilation of lines which develop into a

Fock space The Fock space is an algebraic construction used in quantum mechanics to construct the quantum states space of a variable or unknown number of identical particles from a single particle Hilbert space . It is named after V. A. Fock who first intr ...

framework. This discrete-space structure assumes the metric of spacetime and assumes composite geometric objects so it is not a pregeometric scheme in line with Wheeler's original conception of pregeometry. ;Pregeometric graph by Wilson: Spacetime is described by a generalized graph consisting of a very large or infinite set of vertices paired with a very large or infinite set of edges. From that graph emerge various constructions such as vertices with multiple edges, loops, and directed edges. These in turn support formulations of the metrical foundation of space-time. ;Number theory pregeometry by Volovich: Spacetime as a non-Archimedean geometry over a field of rational numbers and a finite

Galois field In mathematics, a finite field or Galois field (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field that contains a finite number of elements. As with any field, a finite field is a set on which the operations of multiplication, addition, subtra ...

where rational numbers themselves undergo quantum fluctuations. ;Causal sets by Bombelli, Lee, Meyer and Sorkin: All of spacetime at very small scales is a causal set consisting of locally

finite set In mathematics, particularly set theory, a finite set is a set that has a finite number of elements. Informally, a finite set is a set which one could in principle count and finish counting. For example, :\ is a finite set with five elements. Th ...

of elements with a

partial order In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set (also poset) formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with a binary ...

linked to the notion of past and future in macroscopic spacetime and causality between point-events. Derived from the causal order is the differential structure and the conformal metric of a manifold. A probability is assigned to a causal set becoming embedded in a manifold; thus there can be a transition from a discrete Planck scale fundamental unit of volume to a classical large scale continuous space. ;Random graphs by Antonsen: Spacetime is described by dynamical graphs with points (associated with vertices) and links (of unit length) that are created or annihilated according to probability calculations. The parameterization of graphs in a metaspace gives rise to time. ;Bootstrap universe by Cahill and Klinger: An iterative map composed of

monad Monad may refer to: Philosophy * Monad (philosophy), a term meaning "unit" **Monism, the concept of "one essence" in the metaphysical and theological theory ** Monad (Gnosticism), the most primal aspect of God in Gnosticism * ''Great Monad'', an ...

s and the relations between them becomes a tree-graph of nodes and links. A definition of distance between any two monads is defined and from this and probabilistic mathematical tools emerges a three-dimensional space. ;Axiomatic pregeometry by Perez, Bergliaffa, Romero and Vucetich: An assortment of ontological presuppositions describes spacetime a result of relations between objectively existing entities. From presuppositions emerges the topology and metric of

Minkowski space In mathematical physics, Minkowski space (or Minkowski spacetime) () is a combination of three-dimensional Euclidean space and time into a four-dimensional manifold where the spacetime interval between any two events is independent of the inerti ...

time. ;Cellular networks by Requardt: Space is described by a graph with densely entangled sub-clusters of nodes (with differential states) and bonds (either vanishing at 0 or directed at 1). Rules describe the evolution of the graph from a chaotic patternless pre-Big Bang condition to a stable spacetime in the present. Time emerges from a deeper external-parameter "clock-time" and the graphs lead to a natural metrical structure. ;Simplicial quantum gravity by Lehto, Nielsen and Ninomiya: Spacetime is described as having a deeper pregeometric structure based on three dynamical variables, vertices of an

abstract simplicial complex In combinatorics, an abstract simplicial complex (ASC), often called an abstract complex or just a complex, is a family of sets that is closed under taking subsets, i.e., every subset of a set in the family is also in the family. It is a purely c ...

, and a real-valued field associated with every pair of vertices; the abstract simplicial complex is set to correspond with a geometric simplicial complex and then geometric simplices are stitched together into a piecewise linear space. Developed further, triangulation, link distance, a piecewise linear manifold, and a spacetime metric arise. Further, a

lattice Lattice may refer to: Arts and design * Latticework, an ornamental criss-crossed framework, an arrangement of crossing laths or other thin strips of material * Lattice (music), an organized grid model of pitch ratios * Lattice (pastry), an ornam ...

quantization is formulated resulting in a quantum gravity description of spacetime. ;Quantum automaton universe by Jaroszkiewicz and Eakins: Event states (elementary or entangled) are provided topological relationships via tests (

Hermitian operators In mathematics, a self-adjoint operator on an infinite-dimensional complex vector space ''V'' with inner product \langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle (equivalently, a Hermitian operator in the finite-dimensional case) is a linear map ''A'' (from ''V'' to its ...

) endowing the event states with evolution, irreversible acquisition of information, and a quantum arrow of time. Information content in various ages of the universe modifies the tests so the universe acts as an automaton, modifying its structure. Causal set theory is then worked out within this quantum automaton framework to describe a spacetime that inherits the assumptions of geometry within standard quantum mechanics. ;Rational-number spacetime by Horzela, Kapuscik, Kempczynski and Uzes: A preliminary investigation into how all events might be mapped with rational number coordinates and how this might help to better understand a discrete spacetime framework.

References

* Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler ("MTW"), Gravitation (1971) {{ISBN, 978-0-7167-0344-0 §44.4 "Not geometry, but pregeometry as the magic building material", §44.5 "Pregeometry as the calculus of prepositions" * Mathematical physics Quantum gravity

Further reading

References