''Pramana'' (
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: प्रमाण, ) literally means "
proof" and "means of knowledge".
[pramANa]
Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany[James Lochtefeld, "Pramana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , pages 520-521] In Indian philosophies, pramana are the means which can lead to knowledge, and serve as one of the core concepts in Indian
epistemology
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
. It has been one of the key, much debated fields of study in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
,
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
and
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
since ancient times. It is a theory of knowledge, and encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge.
[ The focus of pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.][DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, , page 172]
While the number of pramanas varies widely from system to system, many ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six ''pramanas'' as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: Three central pramanas which are almost universally accepted, which are perception
Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system ...
(Sanskrit ''pratyakṣa),'' inference
Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises to logical consequences; etymologically, the word '' infer'' means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into deduction and induction, a distinction that in ...
(''anumāna''), and "word", meaning the testimony
In law and in religion, testimony is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter.
Etymology
The words "testimony" and "testify" both derive from the Latin word ''testis'', referring to the notion of a disinterested third-party witness.
...
of past or present reliable experts (''Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
''); and more contentious ones, which are comparison and analogy ('' upamāna''), postulation, derivation from circumstances (''arthāpatti''), and non-perception, negative/cognitive proof (''anupalabdhi
''Anupalabdhi'' (Sanskrit: अनुपलब्धि) means 'non-recognition', 'non-perception'. This word refers to the Pramana of Non-perception which consists in the presentative knowledge of negative facts.
Hinduism
''Anupalabdhi'' or '' ...
'').Gavin Flood
__NOTOC__
Gavin Dennis Flood (born 1954) is a British scholar of comparative religion specialising in Shaivism and phenomenology, but with research interests that span South Asian traditions.
From October 2005 through December 2015, he served ...
, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , page 225 Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by each school of Indian philosophies.
The various schools of Indian philosophies vary on how many of these six are epistemically reliable and valid means to knowledge. For example, the Carvaka
Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrace ...
school of the Śramaṇa
''Śramaṇa'' (Sanskrit: श्रमण; Pali: ''samaṇa, Tamil: Samanam'') means "one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose)" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic".Monier Monier ...
tradition holds that only one (perception) is a reliable source of knowledge,[ Buddhism holds two (perception, inference) are valid means,][ Jainism holds three (perception, inference and testimony),][John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238] while Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...
schools of Hinduism hold all six are useful and can be reliable means to knowledge.[
*Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245-248;
*John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238] The various schools of Indian philosophy have debated whether one of the six forms of ''pramana'' can be derived from other, and the relative uniqueness of each. For example, Buddhism considers Buddha and other "valid persons", "valid scriptures" and "valid minds" as indisputable, but that such testimony is a form of perception and inference ''pramanas''.[
The science and study of ''pramanas'' is called ''Nyaya''.][Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 25-26]
Etymology
''Pramāṇa'' literally means "proof" and is also a concept and field of Indian philosophy. The concept is derived from the Sanskrit roots, ''pra'' (प्र), a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and ''mā'' (मा) which means "measurement". ''Pramā'' means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand", with pramāṇa being a further nominalization of the word. Thus, the concept ''Pramāṇa'' implies that which is a "means of acquiring ''prama'' or certain, correct, true knowledge".[
''Pramāṇa'' forms one part of a trio of concepts, which describe the ancient Indian view on how knowledge is gained. The other two concepts are knower and knowable, each discussed in how they influence the knowledge, by their own characteristic and the process of knowing. The two are called ''Pramātŗ'' (प्रमातृ, the subject, the knower) and ''Prameya'' (प्रमेय, the object, the knowable).
The term ''Pramana'' is commonly found in various schools of Hinduism. In Buddhist literature, ''Pramana'' is referred to as ''Pramāṇavāda''. ''Pramana'' is also related to the Indian concept of ''Yukti'' (युक्ति) which means active application of epistemology or what one already knows, innovation, clever expedients or connections, methodological or reasoning trick, joining together, application of contrivance, means, method, novelty or device to more efficiently achieve a purpose.][R Narasimha (2012), Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries, Palgrave Macmillan, , pages 95-97] ''Yukti'' and ''Pramana'' are discussed together in some Indian texts, with ''Yukti'' described as active process of gaining knowledge in contrast to passive process of gaining knowledge through observation/perception. The texts on ''Pramana'', particularly by Samkhya
''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...
, Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...
schools of Hinduism, include in their meaning and scope "Theories of Errors", that is why human beings make error and reach incorrect knowledge, how can one know if one is wrong, and if so, how can one discover whether one's epistemic method was flawed, or one's conclusion (truth) was flawed, in order to revise oneself and reach correct knowledge.
Hinduism
Six ''pramanas''
Hinduism identifies six ''pramanas'' as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference), ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances), ''Anupalabdhi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[
In verse 1.2.1 of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (c. 9th–6th centuries BCE), "four means of attaining correct knowledge" are listed: ''smṛti'' ("scripture, tradition"), ''pratyakṣa'' ("perception"), ''aitihya'' ("expert testimony, historical tradition"), and ''anumāna'' ("inference").
In some texts such as by Vedvyasa, ten ''pramanas'' are discussed, Krtakoti discusses eight epistemically reliable means to correct knowledge. The most widely discussed ''pramanas'' are:][
]
''Pratyakṣa''
''Pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.[MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16] According to Matt Stefan, the distinction is between direct perception (''anubhava'') and remembered perception (''smriti'').
The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 160-168]
# ''Indriyarthasannikarsa'' (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied);
# ''Avyapadesya'' (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay
Hearsay evidence, in a legal forum, is testimony from an under-oath witness who is reciting an out-of-court statement, the content of which is being offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. In most courts, hearsay evidence is inadmis ...
, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception);
# ''Avyabhicara'' (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect);
# ''Vyavasayatmaka'' (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).
Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as ''pramana'' and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included ''pratibha'' (intuition), ''samanyalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and ''jnanalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from ''Pratyakṣa-pranama'', so as to contrast ''nirnaya'' (definite judgment, conclusion) from ''anadhyavasaya'' (indefinite judgment).
''Anumāna''
''Anumāna'' (अनुमान) means ‘inference
Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises to logical consequences; etymologically, the word '' infer'' means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into deduction and induction, a distinction that in ...
’ in Sanskrit, though it often is used to mean ‘guess
A guess (or an act of guessing) is a swift conclusion drawn from data directly at hand, and held as probable or tentative, while the person making the guess (the guesser) admittedly lacks material for a greater degree of certainty. A guess is als ...
’ in modern Indian languages like Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
. In the context of classical philosophy, it is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of ''Anumana''.[ In all except one Hindu philosophies, this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: ''pratijna'' (hypothesis), ''hetu'' (a reason), and ''drshtanta'' (examples).][James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. , page 46-47] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: ''sadhya'' (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and ''paksha'' (the object on which the ''sadhya'' is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if ''sapaksha'' (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if ''vipaksha'' (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand ''Vyapti'' - the requirement that the ''hetu'' (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both ''sapaksha'' and ''vipaksha''.[ A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a ''nigamana'' (conclusion).
]
''Upamāna''
''Upamāna'' (उपमान) means comparison and analogy.[ Some Hindu schools consider it as a proper means of knowledge. ''Upamana'', states Lochtefeld,][ may be explained with the example of a traveller who has never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller identify the new animal later.][James Lochtefeld, "Upamana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 721] The subject of comparison is formally called ''upameyam'', the object of comparison is called ''upamanam'', while the attribute(s) are identified as ''samanya''.[Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, pages 457-458] Thus, explains Monier Williams
Sir Monier Monier-Williams (; né Williams; 12 November 1819 – 11 April 1899) was a British scholar who was the second Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford University, England. He studied, documented and taught Asian languages, especially ...
, if a boy says "her face is like the moon in charmingness", "her face" is ''upameyam'', the moon is ''upamanam'', and charmingness is ''samanya''. The 7th century text Bhaṭṭikāvya
' (; "Bhatti's Poem") is a Sanskrit-language poem dating from the 7th century CE, in the formal genre of "great poem" (mahākāvya). It focuses on two deeply rooted Sanskrit traditions, the ''Ramayana'' and Panini's grammar, while incorporating nu ...
in verses 10.28 through 10.63 discusses many types of comparisons and analogies, identifying when this epistemic method is more useful and reliable, and when it is not.[ In various ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism, 32 types of ''Upanama'' and their value in epistemology are debated.
]
''Arthāpatti''
''Arthāpatti'' (अर्थापत्ति) means postulation, derivation from circumstances.[ In contemporary logic, this ''pramana'' is similar to circumstantial implication. As example, if a person left in a boat on river earlier, and the time is now past the expected time of arrival, then the circumstances support the truth postulate that the person has arrived. Many Indian scholars considered this ''pramana'' as invalid or at best weak, because the boat may have gotten delayed or diverted. However, in cases such as deriving the time of a future sunrise or sunset, this method was asserted by the proponents to be reliable. Another common example for ''arthapatti'' in ancient Hindu texts is, that if "Devadatta is fat" and "Devadatta does not eat in day", then the following must be true: "Devadatta eats in the night". This form of postulation and deriving from circumstances is, claim the Indian scholars, a means to discovery, proper insight and knowledge. The Hindu schools that accept this means of knowledge state that this method is a valid means to conditional knowledge and truths about a subject and object in original premises or different premises. The schools that do not accept this method, state that postulation, extrapolation and circumstantial implication is either derivable from other ''pramanas'' or flawed means to correct knowledge, instead one must rely on direct perception or proper inference.
]
''Anupalabdi''
''Anupalabdi'' (अनुपलब्धि) means non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.[ ''Anupalabdhi pramana'' suggests that knowing a negative, such as "there is no jug in this room" is a form of valid knowledge. If something can be observed or inferred or proven as non-existent or impossible, then one knows more than what one did without such means. In the two schools of Hinduism that consider ''Anupalabdhi'' as epistemically valuable, a valid conclusion is either ''sadrupa'' (positive) or ''asadrupa'' (negative) relation — both correct and valuable. Like other ''pramana'', Indian scholars refined ''Anupalabdi'' to four types: non-perception of the cause, non-perception of the effect, non-perception of object, and non-perception of contradiction. Only two schools of Hinduism accepted and developed the concept "non-perception" as a ''pramana''. The schools that endorsed ''Anupalabdi'' affirmed that it as valid and useful when the other five ''pramanas'' fail in one's pursuit of knowledge and truth.][
''Abhava'' (अभाव) means non-existence. Some scholars consider ''Anupalabdi'' to be same as ''Abhava'',][ while others consider ''Anupalabdi'' and ''Abhava'' as different.] ''Abhava-pramana'' has been discussed in ancient Hindu texts in the context of '' Padārtha'' (पदार्थ, referent of a term). A ''Padartha'' is defined as that which is simultaneously ''Astitva'' (existent), ''Jneyatva'' (knowable) and ''Abhidheyatva'' (nameable).[ Specific examples of ''padartha'', states Bartley, include ''dravya'' (substance), '' guna'' (quality), ''karma'' (activity/motion), ''samanya/jati'' (universal/class property), ''samavaya'' (inherence) and ''vishesha'' (individuality). ''Abhava'' is then explained as "referents of negative expression" in contrast to " referents of positive expression" in ''Padartha''.][ An absence, state the ancient scholars, is also "existent, knowable and nameable", giving the example of negative numbers, silence as a form of testimony, ''asatkaryavada'' theory of causation, and analysis of deficit as real and valuable. ''Abhava'' was further refined in four types, by the schools of Hinduism that accepted it as a useful method of epistemology: ''dhvamsa'' (termination of what existed), ''atyanta-abhava'' (impossibility, absolute non-existence, contradiction), ''anyonya-abhava'' (mutual negation, reciprocal absence) and ''pragavasa'' (prior, antecedent non-existence).]
''Śabda''
''Śabda'' (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts, specifically the '' shruti'', Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
. Hiriyanna explains ''Sabda-pramana'' as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 43] He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through ''Sabda'' (words).[ The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the ''Sabda'' of reliable sources.][ The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as ]Carvaka
Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrace ...
, state that this is never possible, and therefore ''Sabda'' is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.
Acceptance per school
Different schools of Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...
accept one or more of these ''pramanas'' as valid epistemology.[
]
Carvaka school
Carvaka
Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrace ...
school accepted only one valid source of knowledge - perception.[ It held all remaining methods as outright invalid or prone to error and therefore invalid.][
]
Vaisheshika school
Epistemologically, the Vaiśeṣika school considered the following as the only proper means of knowledge:[
#]Perception
Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system ...
(''Pratyakṣa'')
#Inference
Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises to logical consequences; etymologically, the word '' infer'' means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into deduction and induction, a distinction that in ...
(''Anumāna'')
Sankhya, Yoga, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Dvaita Vedanta schools
According to the Sankhya
''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a dualistic school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prakṛti'', (nature ...
, Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
, and two sub-schools of Vedanta, the proper means of knowledge must rely on these three pramanas:[Pramana](_blank)
at Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
#Pratyakṣa — perception
#Anumāna — inference
#Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
— testimony/word of reliable experts
These are enumerated in sutra I.7 of the Yoga Sutras
The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras ( aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ...
. The mode of Pramana itself in sutra I.6 is distinguished among 5 classes of vritti/mental modification, the others including indiscrimination, verbal delusion, sleep, and memory.
Nyaya school
The Nyāya school accepts four[ means of obtaining knowledge (''pramāṇa''), viz., Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word.]
#Perception, called ''Pratyakṣa'', occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology. Perception is defined by sense-object contact and is unerring. Perception can be of two types - ordinary or extraordinary. Ordinary (''Laukika'' or ''Sādhārana'') perception is of six types, viz., visual-by eyes, olfactory-by nose, auditory-by ears, tactile-by skin, gustatory-by tongue and mental-by mind. Extraordinary (''Alaukika'' or ''Asādhārana'') perception is of three types, viz., ''Sāmānyalakṣana'' (perceiving generality from a particular object), ''Jñānalakṣana'' (when one sense organ can also perceive qualities not attributable to it, as when seeing a chilli, one knows that it would be bitter or hot), and ''Yogaja'' (when certain human beings, from the power of ''Yoga'', can perceive past, present and future and have supernatural abilities, either complete or some). Also, there are two modes or steps in perception, viz., ''Nirvikalpa
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'', when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and ''Savikalpa
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'', when one is able to clearly know an object. All laukika and alaukika pratyakshas are savikalpa. There is yet another stage called ''Pratyabhijñā'', when one is able to re-recognise something on the basis of memory.
#Inference, called ''Anumāna'', is one of the most important contributions of Nyaya. It can be of two types – inference for oneself (''Svārthānumāna'', where one does not need any formal procedure, and at the most the last three of their 5 steps), and inference for others (''Parāthānumāna'', which requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps). Inference can also be classified into 3 types: ''Pūrvavat'' (inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause), ''Śeṣavat'' (inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and ''Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa'' (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence). A detailed analysis of error is also given, explaining when anumāna could be false.
#Comparison, called ''Upamāna''. It is produced by the knowledge of resemblance or similarity, given some pre-description of the new object beforehand.
#Word, or ''Śabda'' are also accepted as a ''pramāṇa''. It can be of two types, ''Vaidika'' (Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
), which are the words of the four sacred Vedas, or can be more broadly interpreted as knowledge from sources acknowledged as authoritative, and ''Laukika'', or words and writings of trustworthy human beings.
Prabhakara Mimamsa school
In Mimamsa school of Hinduism linked to Prabhakara considered the following pramanas as proper:[
# ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception)
# ''Anumāṇa'' (inference)
# ''Śabda'' (word, testimony)
# ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison, analogy)
# ''Arthapatti'' (postulation, presumption)
]
Advaita Vedanta and Bhatta Mimamsa schools
In Advaita Vedānta, and Mimamsa school linked to Kumārila Bhaṭṭa
Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (fl. roughly 700) was a Hindu philosopher and a scholar of Mimamsa school of philosophy from early medieval India. He is famous for many of his various theses on Mimamsa, such as ''Mimamsaslokavarttika''. Bhaṭṭa was a ...
, the following pramanas are accepted:[
# ]Śabda
''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance.
History
In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...
(word, testimony)
# Pratyakṣa (perception)
# Anumāṇa (inference)
# Upamāṇa
''Upamāṇa'' (Sanskrit: "comparison"), ''upamana'' in Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest ...
(comparison, analogy)
# Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)
# Anupalabdi, Abhava (non-perception, cognitive proof using non-existence)
Buddhism
Padmākara Translation Group (2005: p. 390) annotates that:
Strictly speaking, pramana (''tshad ma'') means "valid cognition." In (Buddhism) practice, it refers to the tradition, principally associated with Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, of logic (''rtags rigs'') and epistemology (''blo rigs'').
Buddhism accepts only two ''pramana'' (''tshad ma'') as valid means to knowledge: Pratyaksha (''mngon sum tshad ma'', perception) and Anumāṇa (''rjes dpag tshad ma'', inference).[ Rinbochay adds that Buddhism also considers scriptures as third valid ''pramana'', such as from Buddha and other "valid minds" and "valid persons". This third source of valid knowledge is a form of perception and inference in Buddhist thought. Valid scriptures, valid minds and valid persons are considered in Buddhism as ''Avisamvadin'' (''mi slu ba'', incontrovertible, indisputable).][Daniel Perdue, Debate in Tibetan Buddhism, , pages 19-20] Means of cognition and knowledge, other than perception and inference, are considered invalid in Buddhism.[
In Buddhism, the two most important scholars of pramāṇa are ]Dignāga
Dignāga (a.k.a. ''Diṅnāga'', c. 480 – c. 540 CE) was an Indian Buddhist scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā''). Dignāga's work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and ...
and Dharmakīrti
Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th century; Tibetan: ཆོས་ཀྱི་གྲགས་པ་; Wylie: ''chos kyi grags pa''), was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā.Tom Tillemans (2011)Dharmakirti Stanfor ...
.
Sautrantrika
Dignāga and Dharmakīrti are usually categorized as expounding the view of the Sautrāntika
The Sautrāntika or Sutravadin ( sa, सौत्रान्तिक, Suttavāda in Pali; ; ja, 経量部, Kyou Ryou Bu) were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikāya by way of their immediate par ...
tenets, though one can make a distinction between the Sautrāntikas Following Scripture (Tibetan: ལུང་གི་རྗེས་འབྲང་གི་མདོ་སྡེ་པ Wylie: lung gi rjes 'brang gi mdo sde pa) and the Sautrāntikas Following Reason (Tibetan: རིགས་པ་རྗེས་འབྲང་གི་མདོ་སྡེ་པ Wylie: rigs pa rjes 'brang gi mdo sde pa) and both these masters are described as establishing the latter.[Śāntarakṣita & Ju Mipham (2005) pp. 32–39] Dignāga's main text on this topic is the '' Pramāṇa-samuccaya''.
These two rejected the complex Abhidharma
The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
-based description of how in the Vaibhāṣika
Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika ( sa, सर्वास्तिवाद-वैभाषिक) or simply Vaibhāṣika (), refers to an ancient Buddhist tradition of Abhidharma (scholastic Buddhist philosophy), which was very influential in north I ...
school and the Sautrāntika Following Scripture approach connected an external world with mental objects, and instead posited that the mental domain never connects directly with the external world but instead only perceives an aspect based upon the sense organs and the sense consciousnesses. Further, the sense consciousnesses assume the form of the aspect (Sanskrit: Sākāravāda) of the external object and what is perceived is actually the sense consciousness which has taken on the form of the external object. By starting with aspects, a logical argument about the external world as discussed by the Hindu schools was possible. Otherwise their views would be so different as to be impossible to begin a debate. Then a logical discussion could follow.
This approach attempts to solve how the material world connects with the mental world, but not completely explaining it. When pushed on this point, Dharmakīrti then drops a presupposition of the Sautrāntrika position and shifts to a kind of Yogācāra
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
position that extramental objects never really occur but arise from the habitual tendencies of mind. So he begins a debate with Hindu schools positing external objects then later to migrate the discussion to how that is logically untenable.
Note there are two differing interpretations of Dharmakīrti's approach later in Tibet, due to differing translations and interpretations. One is held by the Gelug
file:DalaiLama0054 tiny.jpg, 240px, 14th Dalai Lama, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya, Bodhgaya (India).
The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous ...
school leaning to a moderate realism
Realism, Realistic, or Realists may refer to:
In the arts
*Realism (arts), the general attempt to depict subjects truthfully in different forms of the arts
Arts movements related to realism include:
*Classical Realism
*Literary realism, a move ...
with some accommodation of universals and the other held by the other schools who held that Dharmakīrti was distinctly antirealist.[Śāntarakṣita & Ju Mipham (2005) p.37]
Apoha
A key feature of Dignāga's logic is in how he treats generalities versus specific objects of knowledge. The Nyāya Hindu school made assertions about the existence of general principles, and in refutation Dignāga asserted that generalities were mere mental features and not truly existent. To do this he introduced the idea of ''Apoha'', that the way the mind recognizes is by comparing and negating known objects from the perception. In that way, the general idea or categories of objects has to do with differences from known objects, not from identification with universal truths. So one knows that a perceived chariot is a chariot not because it is in accord with a universal form of a chariot, but because it is perceived as different from things that are not chariots. This approach became an essential feature of Buddhist epistemology.
Madhyamaka
The contemporary of Dignāga but before Dharmakīrti, Bhāvaviveka, incorporated a logical approach when commenting upon Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
. He also started with a Sautrāntika approach when discussing the way appearances appear, to debate with realists, but then took a Middle Way view of the ultimate nature of phenomenon. But he used logical assertions and arguments about the nature of that ultimate nature.
His incorporation of logic into the Middle Way system was later critiqued by Candrakīrti
Chandrakirti (; ; , meaning "glory of the moon" in Sanskrit) or "Chandra" was a Buddhist scholar of the madhyamaka school and a noted commentator on the works of Nagarjuna () and those of his main disciple, Aryadeva. He wrote two influential w ...
, who felt that the establishment of the ultimate way of abiding since it was beyond thought and concept was not the domain of logic. He used simple logical consequence arguments to refute the views of other tenet systems, but generally he thought a more developed use of logic and epistemology in describing the Middle Way was problematic. Bhāvaviveka's use of autonomous logical arguments was later described as the Svātantrika approach.
In Tibet
Modern Buddhist schools employ the 'three spheres' (Sanskrit: trimaṇḍala; Tibetan: 'khor gsum):
#subject
#object, and
#action.[Thub-bstan-chos-kyi-grags-pa, Chokyi Dragpa, Heidi I. Koppl, Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche (2004). ''Uniting Wisdom and Compassion: Illuminating the thirty-seven practices of a bodhisattva''. Wisdom Publications. . Source]
(accessed: February 4, 2009) p.202
When Madhyamaka first migrated to Tibet, Śāntarakṣita
(Sanskrit; , 725–788),stanford.eduŚāntarakṣita (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)/ref> whose name translates into English as "protected by the One who is at peace" was an important and influential Indian Buddhist philosopher, particul ...
established a view of Madhyamaka more consistent with Bhāvaviveka while further evolving logical assertions as a way of contemplating and developing one's viewpoint of the ultimate truth.
In the 14th Century Je Tsongkhapa
Tsongkhapa ('','' meaning: "the man from Tsongkha" or "the Man from Onion Valley", c. 1357–1419) was an influential Tibetan Buddhist monk, philosopher and tantric yogi, whose activities led to the formation of the Gelug school of Tibetan Budd ...
presented a new commentary and approach to Madhyamaka, which became the normative form in Tibet. In this variant, the Madhyamaka approach of Candrakīrti was elevated instead of Bhāvaviveka's yet Tsongkhapa rejected Candrakirti's disdain of logic and instead incorporated logic further.
The exact role of logic in Tibetan Buddhist practice and study may still be a topic of debate, but it is definitely established in the tradition. Ju Mipham
JU may refer to:
Names and people
* Joo (Korean name), surname and given name (including a list of people with the name)
* Jū (鞠), Chinese surname
* Ru (surname), romanized Ju in Wade–Giles
* Ji Ju, a semi-legendary ancestor of the Zhou dyn ...
remarked in his 19th century commentary on Śāntarakṣita's ''Madhyamakālaṅkāra'':
See also
*Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...
*Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
In Hinduism, refers to Pramana#Śabda, the authority of the scriptures (''śruti'', Vedas) with regard to ''puruṣārtha'', the objects of human pursuit, namely ''Dharma (Hinduism), dharma'' (right conduct), ''artha'' (means of life), ''kāma'' ...
* Nyaya
*Buddhist logic
Buddhist logico-epistemology is a term used in Western scholarship for ''pramāṇa-vāda'' (doctrine of proof) and ''Hetu-vidya'' (science of causes). Pramāṇa-vāda is an epistemological study of the nature of knowledge; Hetu-vidya is a syste ...
*Epistemology
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
*Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
Notes
References
Sources
*
Bibliography
*Śāntarakṣita
(Sanskrit; , 725–788),stanford.eduŚāntarakṣita (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)/ref> whose name translates into English as "protected by the One who is at peace" was an important and influential Indian Buddhist philosopher, particul ...
(author); Mipham (commentator); Padmākara Translation Group (translators)(2005). ''The Adornment of the Middle Way: Shantarakshita's Madhyamakalankara with commentary by Jamgön Mipham.'' Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala Publications, Inc. (alk. paper)
External links
Pramāṇamīmāṃsā: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Pramāṇavārttika Pariśiṣṭa 1: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Pramāṇavārttika: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Pramāṇavārttikasvavṛttiṭīkā: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāra: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Pramāṇāntarbhāva: Devanagari
A SARIT Initiative, German Research Foundation
Vidhabhusana, Satis Chandra (1907). History of the Mediaeval School of Indian Logic. Calcutta University.
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Sources of knowledge
Epistemology
Hindu philosophical concepts
Buddhist logic
Epistemology literature