Components
Protection systems usually comprise five components *Types of protection
High-voltage transmission network
Protection of the transmission and distribution system serves two functions: protection of the plant and protection of the public (including employees). At a basic level, protection disconnects equipment that experiences an overload or a short to earth. Some items in substations such as transformers might require additional protection based on temperature or gas pressure, among others.Generator sets
In a power plant, the protective relays are intended to prevent damage toOverload and back-up for distance (overcurrent)
Overload protection requires a current transformer which simply measures the current in a circuit and compares it to the predetermined value. There are two types of overload protection: instantaneous overcurrent (IOC) and time overcurrent (TOC). Instantaneous overcurrent requires that the current exceeds a predetermined level for the circuit breaker to operate. Time overcurrent protection operates based on a current vs time curve. Based on this curve, if the measured current exceeds a given level for the preset amount of time, the circuit breaker or fuse will operate. The function of both types is explained in .Earth fault/ground fault
Earth fault protection also requires current transformers and senses an imbalance in a three-phase circuit. Normally the three phase currents are in balance, i.e. roughly equal in magnitude. If one or two phases become connected to earth via a low impedance path, their magnitudes will increase dramatically, as will current imbalance. If this imbalance exceeds a pre-determined value, a circuit breaker should operate. Restricted earth fault protection is a type of earth fault protection which looks for earth fault between two sets of current transformers (hence restricted to that zone).Distance (impedance relay)
Distance protection detects both voltage and current. A fault on a circuit will generally create a sag in the voltage level. If the ratio of voltage to current measured at the relay terminals, which equates to an impedance, lands within a predetermined level the circuit breaker will operate. This is useful for reasonably long lines, lines longer than 10 miles, because their operating characteristics are based on the line characteristics. This means that when a fault appears on the line the impedance setting in the relay is compared to the apparent impedance of the line from the relay terminals to the fault. If the relay setting is determined to be below the apparent impedance it is determined that the fault is within the zone of protection. When the transmission line length is too short, less than 10 miles, distance protection becomes more difficult to coordinate. In these instances the best choice of protection is current differential protection.Back-up
The objective of protection is to remove only the affected portion of plant and nothing else. A circuit breaker or protection relay may fail to operate. In important systems, a failure of primary protection will usually result in the operation of back-up protection. Remote back-up protection will generally remove both the affected and unaffected items of plant to clear the fault. Local back-up protection will remove the affected items of the plant to clear the fault.Low-voltage networks
TheCybersecurity
The bulk system which is a large interconnected electrical system including transmission and control system is experiencing new cybersecurity threats every day. (“Electric Grid Cybersecurity,” 2019). Most of these attacks are aiming the control systems in the grids. These control systems are connected to the internet and makes it easier for hackers to attack them. These attacks can cause damage to equipment and limit the utility professionals ability to control the system.Coordination
Protective device coordination is the process of determining the "best fit" timing of current interruption when abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an outage to the greatest extent possible. Historically, protective device coordination was done on translucent log–log paper. Modern methods normally include detailed computer based analysis and reporting. Protection coordination is also handled through dividing the power system into protective zones. If a fault were to occur in a given zone, necessary actions will be executed to isolate that zone from the entire system. Zone definitions account for generators, buses,Disturbance-monitoring equipment
Disturbance-monitoring equipment (DME) monitors and records system data pertaining to a fault. DME accomplish three main purposes: * model validation, *disturbance investigation, and *assessment of system protection performance. DME devices include: *Sequence of event recorders, which record equipment response to the event *Fault recorders, which record actual waveform data of the system primary voltages and currents *Dynamic disturbance recorders (DDRs), which record incidents that portray power system behavior during dynamic events such as low frequency (0.1 Hz – 3 Hz) oscillations and abnormal frequency or voltage excursionsPerformance measures
Protection engineers define dependability as the tendency of the protection system to operate correctly for in-zone faults. They define security as the tendency not to operate for out-of-zone faults. Both dependability and security are reliability issues. Fault tree analysis is one tool with which a protection engineer can compare the relative reliability of proposed protection schemes. Quantifying protection reliability is important for making the best decisions on improving a protection system, managing dependability versus security tradeoffs, and getting the best results for the least money. A quantitative understanding is essential in the competitive utility industry. *Reliability: Devices must function consistently when fault conditions occur, regardless of possibly being idle for months or years. Without this reliability, systems may cause costly damages. *Selectivity: Devices must avoid unwarranted, false trips. *Speed: Devices must function quickly to reduce equipment damage and fault duration, with only very precise intentional time delays. *Sensitivity: Devices must detect even the smallest value of faults and respond. *Economy: Devices must provide maximum protection at minimum cost. *Simplicity: Devices must minimize protection circuitry and equipment. Reliability: Dependability vs Security There are two aspects of reliable operation of protection systems: dependability and security. NERC Reliability Fundamentals of System Protection, December 2010, Sec 3 - 4.1.2.3, https://www.nerc.com/comm/PC/System%20Protection%20and%20Control%20Subcommittee%20SPCS%20DL/Protection%20System%20Reliability%20Fundamentals_Approved_20101208.pdf Dependability is the ability of the protection system to operate when called upon to remove a faulted element from the power system. Security is the ability of the protection system to restrain itself from operating during an external fault. Choosing the appropriate balance between security and dependability in designing the protection system requires engineering judgement and varies on a case by case basis.See also
*Notes
References
* * * * * * * *http://perso.numericable.fr/michlami protection and monitoring of the electrical energy transmission network {{Electricity delivery Over-current protection devices Power engineering