The pons (from
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, "bridge") is part of the
brainstem
The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior stalk-like part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is cont ...
that in
human
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...
s and other
biped
Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped , meaning 'two feet' (from Latin ''bis'' 'double' a ...
s lies inferior to the
midbrain
The midbrain or mesencephalon is the forward-most portion of the brainstem and is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation. The name comes from the Greek ''mesos'', " ...
, superior to the
medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the brainstem. It is anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involun ...
and anterior to the
cerebellum
The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebel ...
.
The pons is also called the pons Varolii ("bridge of Varolius"), after the Italian anatomist and surgeon
Costanzo Varolio
Costanzo Varolio, Latinized as Constantius Varolius (1543–1575), was an Italian anatomist and a papal physician to Gregory XIII.
Varolio was born in Bologna. He was a pupil of the anatomist Giulio Cesare Aranzio, himself a pupil of Vesali ...
(1543–75).
This region of the brainstem includes
neural pathways
In neuroanatomy, a neural pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable neurotransmission (the sending of a signal from one region of the nervous system to an ...
and
tracts that conduct signals from the
brain
A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a v ...
down to the
cerebellum
The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebel ...
and medulla, and tracts that carry the sensory signals up into the
thalamus
The thalamus (from Greek θάλαμος, "chamber") is a large mass of gray matter located in the dorsal part of the diencephalon (a division of the forebrain). Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex in all directions, ...
.
[Saladin Kenneth S.(2007) Anatomy & physiology the unity of form and function. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill]
Structure
The pons is in the brainstem situated between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, and in front of the cerebellum. A separating groove between the pons and the medulla is the inferior pontine sulcus.
The superior pontine sulcus separates the pons from the midbrain.
The pons can be broadly divided into two parts: the
basilar part of the pons
The basilar part of pons, also known as basis pontis, is the ventral part of the pons; the dorsal part is known as the pontine tegmentum.
The basilar pons makes up two thirds of the pons within the brainstem. It has a ridged appearance with a shal ...
(ventral pons), and the
pontine tegmentum
Pontine may refer to:
* Having to do with the pons, a structure located in the brain stem (from ''pons'', "bridge")
* Pontine Marshes, a region of Italy near Rome
* Pontine Islands
The Pontine Islands (, also ; it, Isole Ponziane ) are an ar ...
(dorsal pons). Running down the midline of the ventral surface is the
basilar sulcus
The basilar sulcus (groove for basilar artery) is a groove in the pons, part of the brainstem.
The basilar sulcus is vertical directed and lies in the midline of the pons on its anterior (front) surface. The basilar artery
The basilar artery ( ...
, a groove for the
basilar artery
The basilar artery () is one of the arteries that supplies the brain with oxygen-rich blood.
The two vertebral arteries and the basilar artery are known as the vertebral basilar system, which supplies blood to the posterior part of the circle of W ...
. Most of the pons is supplied by the
pontine arteries
The pontine arteries are a number of small arteries which come off at right angles from either side of the basilar artery and supply the pons and adjacent parts of the brain. The pontine arteries include the paramedian arteries
The paramedian arte ...
, which arise from the basilar artery. A smaller portion of the pons is supplied by the
anterior
Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...
and
posterior inferior cerebellar arteries
The posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) is the largest branch of the vertebral artery. It is one of the three main artery, arteries that supply blood to the cerebellum, a part of the brain. Blockage of the posterior inferior cerebellar arte ...
.
The pons in humans measures about in length. Most of it appears as a broad anterior bulge above the medulla. Posteriorly, it consists mainly of two pairs of thick stalks called
cerebellar peduncle
Cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the brain stem. There are six cerebellar peduncles in total, three on each side:
* Superior cerebellar peduncle is a paired structure of white matter that connects the cerebellum to the mid-brain ...
s. They connect the cerebellum to the pons (
middle cerebellar peduncle
The middle cerebellar peduncle (brachium pontis) is a paired structure of the brain. It connects the pons to the cerebellum, with fibres originating from the pontine nucleus and travelling to the opposite hemisphere of the cerebellar cortex. It i ...
) and midbrain (
superior cerebellar peduncle
In the human brain, the superior cerebellar peduncle (brachium conjunctivum) is a paired structure of white matter that connects the cerebellum to the midbrain. It consists mainly of efferent fibers, the cerebellothalamic tract that runs from a cer ...
).
Development
During
embryonic development
An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm ...
, the
metencephalon
The metencephalon is the embryonic part of the hindbrain that differentiates into the pons and the cerebellum. It contains a portion of the fourth ventricle and the trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (CN VI), facial nerve (CN VII), and a port ...
develops from the
rhombencephalon
The hindbrain or rhombencephalon or lower brain is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates. It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes. Metencephalon ...
and gives rise to two structures: the pons and the cerebellum.
The
alar plate
Daminozide—also known as aminozide, Alar, Kylar, SADH, B-995, B-nine, and DMASA,—is a plant growth regulator, a chemical sprayed on fruit to regulate growth, make harvest easier, and keep apples from falling off the trees before they ripen s ...
produces sensory
neuroblasts, which will give rise to the
solitary nucleus
In the human brainstem, the solitary nucleus, also called nucleus of the solitary tract, nucleus solitarius, and nucleus tractus solitarii, (SN or NTS) is a series of purely sensory
nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) forming a vertical column ...
and its
special visceral afferent A Special visceral afferent fibers (SVA) is a afferent fiber that develop in association with the gastrointestinal tract. They carry the special senses of smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation). The cranial nerves containing SVA fibers are the olfa ...
(SVA) column; the
cochlear and
vestibular nuclei
The vestibular nuclei (VN) are the cranial nuclei for the vestibular nerve located in the brainstem.
In Terminologia Anatomica they are grouped in both the pons and the medulla in the brainstem.
Structure Path
The fibers of the vestibular nerve ...
, which form the
special somatic afferent
Special somatic afferent fibers (SSA) are the afferent nerve fibers that carry information from the special senses of vision, hearing and balance. The cranial nerves containing SSA fibers are the optic nerve (II) and the vestibulocochlear nerve (VI ...
(SSA) fibers of the
vestibulocochlear nerve
The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the bra ...
, the spinal and principal
trigeminal nerve nuclei
The sensory trigeminal nerve nuclei are the largest of the cranial nerve nuclei, and extend through the whole of the midbrain, pons and medulla, and into the high cervical spinal cord.
The nucleus is divided into three parts, from rostral to caud ...
, which form the
general somatic afferent column (GSA) of the
trigeminal nerve
In neuroanatomy, the trigeminal nerve ( lit. ''triplet'' nerve), also known as the fifth cranial nerve, cranial nerve V, or simply CN V, is a cranial nerve responsible for sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewin ...
, and the
pontine nuclei
Pontine may refer to:
* Having to do with the pons, a structure located in the brain stem (from ''pons'', "bridge")
* Pontine Marshes, a region of Italy near Rome
* Pontine Islands
The Pontine Islands (, also ; it, Isole Ponziane ) are an ar ...
which relays to the
cerebellum
The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebel ...
.
Basal plate neuroblasts give rise to the
abducens nucleus
The abducens nucleus is the originating nucleus from which the abducens nerve (VI) emerges—a cranial nerve nucleus. This nucleus is located beneath the fourth ventricle in the Anatomical terms of location, caudal portion of the pons, Anatomical t ...
, which forms the
general somatic efferent fibers
The general (spinal) somatic efferent neurons (GSE, somatomotor, or somatic motor fibers), arise from motor neuron cell bodies in the ventral horns of the gray matter within the spinal cord. They exit the spinal cord through the ventral roots, car ...
(GSE); the facial and motor trigeminal nuclei, which form the
special visceral efferent Special visceral efferent fibers (SVE) are the efferent nerve fibers that provide motor innervation to the muscles of the pharyngeal arches in humans, and the branchial arches in fish.
Some sources prefer the term "branchiomotor" or "branchial eff ...
(SVE) column, and the
superior salivatory nucleus
The salivatory nuclei are the superior salivatory nucleus, and the inferior salivatory nucleus that innervate the salivary glands. They are located in the pontine tegmentum in the brainstem. They both are examples of cranial nerve nuclei.
The sup ...
, which forms the
general visceral efferent fibers
General visceral efferent fibers (GVE) or visceral efferents or autonomic efferents, are the efferent nerve fibers of the autonomic nervous system (also known as the ''visceral efferent nervous system'' that provide motor innervation to smooth ...
(GVE) of the
facial nerve
The facial nerve, also known as the seventh cranial nerve, cranial nerve VII, or simply CN VII, is a cranial nerve that emerges from the pons of the brainstem, controls the muscles of facial expression, and functions in the conveyance of tas ...
.
Nuclei
![Lower pons horizontal KB](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Lower_pons_horizontal_KB.svg)
A number of
cranial nerve nuclei
A cranial nerve nucleus is a collection of neurons (gray matter) in the brain stem that is associated with one or more of the cranial nerves. Axons carrying information to and from the cranial nerves form a synapse first at these nuclei. Lesions ...
are present in the pons:
* mid-pons: the 'chief' or 'pontine' nucleus of the
trigeminal nerve
In neuroanatomy, the trigeminal nerve ( lit. ''triplet'' nerve), also known as the fifth cranial nerve, cranial nerve V, or simply CN V, is a cranial nerve responsible for sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewin ...
sensory nucleus (V)
* mid-pons: the
motor nucleus for the trigeminal nerve (V)
* lower down in the pons:
abducens nucleus
The abducens nucleus is the originating nucleus from which the abducens nerve (VI) emerges—a cranial nerve nucleus. This nucleus is located beneath the fourth ventricle in the Anatomical terms of location, caudal portion of the pons, Anatomical t ...
(VI)
* lower down in the pons:
facial nerve nucleus (VII)
* lower down in the pons:
vestibulocochlear
The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the b ...
nuclei (
vestibular nuclei
The vestibular nuclei (VN) are the cranial nuclei for the vestibular nerve located in the brainstem.
In Terminologia Anatomica they are grouped in both the pons and the medulla in the brainstem.
Structure Path
The fibers of the vestibular nerve ...
and
cochlear nuclei
The cochlear nuclear (CN) complex comprises two cranial nerve nuclei in the human brainstem, the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) and the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN).
The ventral cochlear nucleus is unlayered whereas the dorsal cochlear nucleus ...
) (VIII)
Function
Functions of these four cranial nerves (V-VIII) include regulation of respiration, control of involuntary actions, sensory roles in hearing, equilibrium, and taste, and in facial sensations such as touch and pain, as well as motor roles in eye movement, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, and the secretion of saliva and tears.
The pons contains
nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture.
Within the pons is the
pneumotaxic center
The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal res ...
consisting of the
subparabrachial and the
medial parabrachial nuclei. This center regulates the change from inhalation to exhalation.
The pons is implicated in
sleep paralysis
Sleep paralysis is a state, during waking up or falling asleep, in which one is conscious but is completely paralyzed. During an episode, one may hallucinate (hear, feel, or see things that are not there), which often results in fear. Episodes ...
, and may also play a role in generating dreams.
Clinical significance
*
Central pontine myelinolysis
Central pontine myelinolysis is a neurological condition involving severe damage to the myelin sheath of nerve cells in the ''pons'' (an area of the brainstem). It is predominately iatrogenic (treatment-induced), and is characterized by acute par ...
is a
demyelinating disease
A demyelinating disease is any disease of the nervous system in which the myelin sheath of neurons is damaged. This damage impairs the conduction of signals in the affected nerves. In turn, the reduction in conduction ability causes deficiency i ...
that causes difficulty with sense of balance, walking, sense of touch, swallowing and speaking. In a clinical setting, it is often associated with transplant or rapid correction of blood sodium. Undiagnosed, it can lead to death or
locked-in syndrome
Locked-in syndrome (LIS), also known as pseudocoma, is a condition in which a patient is aware but cannot move or communicate verbally due to complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles in the body except for vertical eye movements and bli ...
.
Other animals
Evolution
The pons first evolved as an offshoot of the medullary
reticular formation
The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem. It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation ...
.
[ Pritchard and Alloway ''Medical Neuroscience''] Since
lamprey
Lampreys (sometimes inaccurately called lamprey eels) are an ancient extant lineage of jawless fish of the order Petromyzontiformes , placed in the superclass Cyclostomata. The adult lamprey may be characterized by a toothed, funnel-like s ...
s possess a pons, it has been argued that it must have evolved as a region distinct from the
medulla
Medulla or Medullary may refer to:
Science
* Medulla oblongata, a part of the brain stem
* Renal medulla, a part of the kidney
* Adrenal medulla, a part of the adrenal gland
* Medulla of ovary, a stroma in the center of the ovary
* Medulla of t ...
by the time the first
agnathans
Agnatha (, Ancient Greek 'without jaws') is an infraphylum of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, consisting of both present (cyclostomes) and extinct (conodonts and ostracoderms) species. Among recent animals, cyclostomes ...
appeared, 525 million years ago.
[ Butler and Hodos ''Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: evolution and adaptation'']
Additional images
File:Pons.gif, Location and topography of Pons (animation)
File:Gray701.png, Axial section of the pons, at its upper part
File:Gray719.png, Hind- and mid-brains; posterolateral view
File:Gray720.png, Median sagittal section of brain
File:Brain stem sagittal section.svg, Nuclei of the pons and brainstem
File:Slide2cuc.JPG, Cerebrum. Deep dissection. Inferior dissection.
References
*
*
External links
Diagram at UCC*
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