Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, , is a country in
Central Europe
Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the area' ...
. Poland is divided into
sixteen voivodeships and is the fifth most populous
member state of the European Union (EU), with over 38 million people, and the
seventh largest EU country, covering a combined area of . It extends from the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
in the north to the
Sudetes
The Sudetes ( ; pl, Sudety; german: Sudeten; cs, Krkonošsko-jesenická subprovincie), commonly known as the Sudeten Mountains, is a geomorphological subprovince in Central Europe, shared by Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. They consis ...
and
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
in the south, bordering seven countries. The territory is characterised by a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, and
temperate transitional climate. The capital and
largest city
The United Nations uses three definitions for what constitutes a city, as not all cities in all jurisdictions are classified using the same criteria. Cities may be defined as the cities proper, the extent of their urban area, or their metropo ...
is
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
; other major cities include
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
,
Wrocław
Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, rou ...
,
Łódź
Łódź, also rendered in English as Lodz, is a city in central Poland and a former industrial centre. It is the capital of Łódź Voivodeship, and is located approximately south-west of Warsaw. The city's coat of arms is an example of canti ...
,
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John ...
, and
Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
.
Humans have been present on Polish soil since the
Lower Paleolithic
The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in ...
, with continuous settlement since the end of the
Last Glacial Period over 12,000 years ago. Culturally diverse throughout
late antiquity
Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English ha ...
, in the
early medieval period
The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages (historiography), Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They ...
the region became inhabited by the tribal
Polans Polans may refer to two Slavic tribes:
* Polans (eastern)
The Polans (, ''Poliany'', ''Polyane'', pl, Polanie), also Polianians, were an East Slavic tribe between the 6th and the 9th century, which inhabited both sides of the Dnieper river ...
who gave
Poland its name. The process of establishing
statehood
A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. There is no undisputed definition of a state. One widely used definition comes from the German sociologist Max Weber: a "sta ...
coincided with the conversion of a
pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity, under the auspices of the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
in 966. Subsequent territorial expansion led to the creation of the
Kingdom of Poland
The Kingdom of Poland ( pl, Królestwo Polskie; Latin: ''Regnum Poloniae'') was a state in Central Europe. It may refer to:
Historical political entities
*Kingdom of Poland, a kingdom existing from 1025 to 1031
*Kingdom of Poland, a kingdom exist ...
in 1025. By the mid-14th century, Poland became a major European power and began gradually
integrating with Lithuania, resulting in the formation of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
in 1569. For the next two centuries, the Commonwealth was one of the
great powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...
of Europe, governed by a
uniquely liberal political system that adopted
Europe's first modern constitution in 1791.
With the passing of the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
and the prosperous
Polish Golden Age
The Polish Golden Age was the Renaissance period in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, roughly corresponding to the period of rule of the King Sigismund I the Old and his son, Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellonian Dynasty monar ...
in the late 16th century, Poland–Lithuania was weakened by social and political turmoil that led to its
partition by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. Poland regained its
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
at the end of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
with the founding of the
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 1918 and 1939. The state was established on 6 November 1918, before the end of ...
. In September 1939, the
invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland (1 September – 6 October 1939) was a joint attack on the Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union which marked the beginning of World War II. The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week aft ...
by
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
and the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
marked the beginning of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, which resulted in
the Holocaust
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe; a ...
and millions of
Polish casualties. Forced into the
Eastern Bloc
The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...
during the global
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
, the
Polish People's Republic
The Polish People's Republic ( pl, Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL) was a country in Central Europe that existed from 1947 to 1989 as the predecessor of the modern Republic of Poland. With a population of approximately 37.9 million nea ...
was a founding signatory of the
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP) or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republic ...
. Through the emergence and contributions of the
Solidarity movement
Solidarity ( pl, „Solidarność”, ), full name Independent Self-Governing Trade Union "Solidarity" (, abbreviated ''NSZZ „Solidarność”'' ), is a Polish trade union founded in August 1980 at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland. Subseq ...
, the
communist government
A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state that is administered and governed by a communist party guided by Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, the Comint ...
was
dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a
democratic state
Democracy (From grc, δημοκρατία, dēmokratía, ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy"), or to choose gover ...
in 1989.
Poland is a
unitary
Unitary may refer to:
Mathematics
* Unitary divisor
* Unitary element
* Unitary group
* Unitary matrix
* Unitary morphism
* Unitary operator
* Unitary transformation
* Unitary representation
* Unitarity (physics)
* ''E''-unitary inverse semigroup ...
parliamentary republic
A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number ...
, with its
bicameral legislature
Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single grou ...
comprising the
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
and the
Senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
. The country is considered a
middle power
In international relations, a middle power is a sovereign state that is not a great power nor a superpower, but still has large or moderate influence and international recognition.
The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of ...
, with a
developed market
In investing, a developed market is a country that is most developed in terms of its economy and capital markets. The country must be high income, but this also includes openness to foreign ownership, ease of capital movement, and efficiency of ma ...
and
high-income economy
A high-income economy is defined by the World Bank as a nation with a gross national income per capita of US$12,696 or more in 2020, calculated using the Atlas method. While the term "high-income" is often used interchangeably with "First World" a ...
that is the
sixth largest in the
EU by nominal
GDP
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold (not resold) in a specific time period by countries. Due to its complex and subjective nature this measure is often ...
and the
fifth largest by GDP (PPP). Poland enjoys a
very high standard of living, safety, and
economic freedom
Economic freedom, or economic liberty, is the ability of people of a society to take economic actions. This is a term used in economic and policy debates as well as in the philosophy of economics. One approach to economic freedom comes from the l ...
, as well as free
university education
Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completio ...
and
universal health care
Universal health care (also called universal health coverage, universal coverage, or universal care) is a health care system in which all residents of a particular country or region are assured access to health care. It is generally organized ar ...
. The country has 17
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage Sites
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNES ...
, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of the
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and facilitates international trade. With effective cooperation
in the United Nations System, governments use the organization to establish, revise, and e ...
,
OECD
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; french: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, ''OCDE'') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate e ...
,
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
, and the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
(including the
Schengen Area
The Schengen Area ( , ) is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider area of freedom, security and j ...
).
Etymology
The native
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles, people from Poland or of Polish descent
* Polish chicken
*Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin screenwr ...
name for Poland is . The name is derived from the
Polans Polans may refer to two Slavic tribes:
* Polans (eastern)
The Polans (, ''Poliany'', ''Polyane'', pl, Polanie), also Polianians, were an East Slavic tribe between the 6th and the 9th century, which inhabited both sides of the Dnieper river ...
, a
West Slavic tribe who inhabited the
Warta River
The river Warta ( , ; german: Warthe ; la, Varta) rises in central Poland and meanders greatly north-west to flow into the Oder, against the German border. About long, it is Poland's second-longest river within its borders after the Vistula, a ...
basin of present-day
Greater Poland
Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; german: Großpolen, sv, Storpolen, la, Polonia Maior), is a Polish historical regions, historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed ...
region (6th–8th century CE). The tribe's name stems from the
Proto-Slavic
Proto-Slavic (abbreviated PSl., PS.; also called Common Slavic or Common Slavonic) is the Attested language, unattested, linguistic reconstruction, reconstructed proto-language of all Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately ...
noun ''pole'' meaning field, which in-itself originates from the
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo-E ...
word ''*pleh₂-'' indicating flatland. The etymology alludes to the
topography
Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.
Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...
of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland. During the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
form ''Polonia'' was widely used throughout Europe.
The country's alternative archaic name is ''
Lechia
The ethnonyms for the Poles (people) and Poland (their country) include endonyms (the way Polish people refer to themselves and their country) and exonyms (the way other peoples refer to the Poles and their country). Endonyms and most exonyms ...
'' and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably
Hungarian,
Lithuanian
Lithuanian may refer to:
* Lithuanians
* Lithuanian language
* The country of Lithuania
* Grand Duchy of Lithuania
* Culture of Lithuania
* Lithuanian cuisine
* Lithuanian Jews as often called "Lithuanians" (''Lita'im'' or ''Litvaks'') by other Jew ...
, and
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
. The
exonym
An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
possibly derives from either
Lech
Lech may refer to:
People
* Lech (name), a name of Polish origin
* Lech, the legendary founder of Poland
* Lech (Bohemian prince)
Products and organizations
* Lech (beer), Polish beer produced by Kompania Piwowarska, in Poznań
* Lech Poznań, ...
, a legendary ruler of the
Lechites
Lechites (, german: Lechiten), also known as the Lechitic tribes (, german: Lechitische Stämme), is a name given to certain West Slavic tribes who inhabited modern-day Poland and eastern Germany, and were speakers of the Lechitic languages. Dist ...
, or from the
Lendians
The Lendians ( pl, Lędzianie) were a Lechitic tribe who lived in the area of East Lesser Poland and Cherven Cities between the 7th and 11th centuries. Since they were documented primarily by foreign authors whose knowledge of Central and East E ...
, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of
Lesser Poland
Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a s ...
.
The origin of the tribe's name lies in the
Old Polish
The Old Polish language ( pl, język staropolski, staropolszczyzna) was a period in the history of the Polish language between the 10th and the 16th centuries. It was followed by the Middle Polish language.
The sources for the study of the Old ...
word ''lęda'' (plain). Initially, both names ''Lechia'' and ''Polonia'' were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
.
History
Prehistory and protohistory
![Biskupin brama od zewnatrz](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Biskupin_brama_od_zewnatrz.jpg)
The first
Stone Age
The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with t ...
archaic humans and ''
Homo erectus
''Homo erectus'' (; meaning "upright man") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Several human species, such as '' H. heidelbergensis'' and '' H. antecessor' ...
'' species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments. The arrival of ''
Homo sapiens
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...
'' and
anatomically modern humans
Early modern human (EMH) or anatomically modern human (AMH) are terms used to distinguish ''Homo sapiens'' (the only extant Hominina species) that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from extin ...
coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the
Last Glacial Period (
Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.
Neolithic
The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...
excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish
Kuyavia
Kuyavia ( pl, Kujawy; german: Kujawien; la, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło. It is divided into three t ...
, and the
Bronocice pot
The Bronocice pot is a ceramic vase incised with one of the earliest known depictions of what may be a wheeled vehicle. It was discovered in the village of Bronocice near the Nidzica River in Poland. Attributed to the Funnelbeaker archaeologic ...
is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).
The period spanning the
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
and the
Early Iron Age
The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...
(1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of
palisade
A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall or a paling, is typically a fence or defensive wall made from iron or wooden stakes, or tree trunks, and used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Palisades can form a stockade.
Etymology
''Palisade' ...
d settlements (
gords) and the expansion of
Lusatian culture
The Lusatian culture existed in the later Bronze Age and early Iron Age (1700 BC – 500 BC) in most of what is now Poland and parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, eastern Germany and western Ukraine. It covers the Periods Montelius III (earl ...
. A significant archaeological find from
the protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at
Biskupin
Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of a late Bronze Age fortified settlement in north-central Poland that also serves as an archaeological open-air museum. When first discovered it was thought to be early evidence of a We ...
, attributed to the Lusatian culture of the
Late Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
(mid-8th century BC).
Throughout
antiquity
Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to:
Historical objects or periods Artifacts
*Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures
Eras
Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...
(400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably
Celtic
Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to:
Language and ethnicity
*pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia
**Celts (modern)
*Celtic languages
**Proto-Celtic language
* Celtic music
*Celtic nations
Sports Fo ...
,
Scythia
Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
His ...
n,
Germanic,
Sarmatian
The Sarmatians (; grc, Σαρμαται, Sarmatai; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Eastern Iranian languages, Eastern Iranian peoples, Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples of classical ant ...
,
Baltic
Baltic may refer to:
Peoples and languages
* Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian
*Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originati ...
and
Slavic tribes. Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of
Roman Legions
The Roman legion ( la, legiō, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of ...
sent to protect the
amber trade. The
Polish tribes
"Polish tribes" is a term used sometimes to describe the tribes of West Slavic Lechites that lived from around the mid-6th century in the territories that became Polish with the creation of the Polish state by the Piast dynasty. The territory on ...
emerged following the
second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD;
they were
Slavic and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area. Beginning in the early 10th century, the
Polans Polans may refer to two Slavic tribes:
* Polans (eastern)
The Polans (, ''Poliany'', ''Polyane'', pl, Polanie), also Polianians, were an East Slavic tribe between the 6th and the 9th century, which inhabited both sides of the Dnieper river ...
would come to dominate other
Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state.
Kingdom of Poland
![Poland960](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Poland960.png)
Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the
Piast dynasty
The House of Piast was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. The first documented Polish monarch was Duke Mieszko I (c. 930–992). The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir III the Great.
Branch ...
. In 966, ruler of the Polans
Mieszko I
Mieszko I (; – 25 May 992) was the first ruler of Poland and the founder of the first independent Polish state, the Duchy of Poland. His reign stretched from 960 to his death and he was a member of the Piast dynasty, a son of Siemomysł and ...
accepted Christianity under the auspices of the
Roman Church
Holy Roman Church, Roman Church, Church of Rome or Church in Rome may refer to:
* The Diocese of Rome or the Holy See
* The Latin Church
* Churches of Rome (buildings)
In historical contexts ''Roman Church'' may also refer to:
* The Catholic Chur ...
with the
Baptism of Poland
The Christianization of Poland ( pl, chrystianizacja Polski) refers to the introduction and subsequent spread of Christianity in Poland. The impetus to the process was the Baptism of Poland ( pl, chrzest Polski), the personal baptism of Mieszk ...
. In 968, a missionary
bishopric
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associate ...
was established in
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John ...
. An
incipit
The incipit () of a text is the first few words of the text, employed as an identifying label. In a musical composition, an incipit is an initial sequence of notes, having the same purpose. The word ''incipit'' comes from Latin and means "it beg ...
titled
Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital in
Gniezno
Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of the
Apostolic See
An apostolic see is an episcopal see whose foundation is attributed to one or more of the apostles of Jesus or to one of their close associates. In Catholicism the phrase, preceded by the definite article and usually capitalized, refers to the S ...
.
The country's early origins were described by
Gallus Anonymus
''Gallus Anonymus'' ( Polonized variant: ''Gall '') is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of ''Gesta principum Polonorum'' (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in Latin between 1112 and 1118.
''Gallus'' is generally rega ...
in , the oldest Polish chronicle. An important national event of the period was the
martyrdom
A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external ...
of
Saint Adalbert, who was killed by
Prussian
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an e ...
pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor,
Bolesław I the Brave
Bolesław I the Brave ; cs, Boleslav Chrabrý; la, Boleslaus I rex Poloniae (17 June 1025), less often known as Bolesław the Great, was Duke of Poland from 992 to 1025, and the first King of Poland in 1025. He was also Duke of Bohemia betw ...
.
In 1000, at the
Congress of Gniezno
The Congress of Gniezno ( pl, Zjazd gnieźnieński, german: Akt von Gnesen or ''Gnesener Übereinkunft'') was an amicable meeting between the Polish Duke Bolesław I the Brave and Emperor Otto III, which took place at Gniezno in Poland on 11 Ma ...
, Bolesław obtained the right of
investiture
Investiture (from the Latin preposition ''in'' and verb ''vestire'', "dress" from ''vestis'' "robe") is a formal installation or ceremony that a person undergoes, often related to membership in Christian religious institutes as well as Christian k ...
from
Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor
Otto III (June/July 980 – 23 January 1002) was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 until his death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto III was the only son of the Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu.
Otto III was crowned as King of Ge ...
, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno.
Three new dioceses were subsequently established in
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
,
Kołobrzeg
Kołobrzeg ( ; csb, Kòlbrzég; german: Kolberg, ), ; csb, Kòlbrzég , is a port city in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in north-western Poland with about 47,000 inhabitants (). Kołobrzeg is located on the Parsęta River on the south coast o ...
, and
Wrocław
Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, rou ...
. Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal
regalia
Regalia is a Latin plurale tantum word that has different definitions. In one rare definition, it refers to the exclusive privileges of a sovereign. The word originally referred to the elaborate formal dress and dress accessories of a sovereign ...
and a replica of the Holy Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the first List of Polish monarchs, King of Poland in , when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from Pope John XIX. Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German Lusatia, Czech Moravia, Upper Hungary and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus'.
![Casimir the Great by Leopold Löffler](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Casimir_the_Great_by_Leopold_L%C3%B6ffler.PNG)
The transition from Slavic paganism, paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the Pagan reaction in Poland, pagan reaction of the 1030s. In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence. The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer. In 1076, Bolesław II the Generous, Bolesław II re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop Stanislaus. In 1138, the country Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth, fragmented into five principalities when Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons.
These comprised
Lesser Poland
Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a s ...
, Greater Poland, Silesia, Masovia and Sandomierz, with intermittent hold over Pomerania. In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the
Baltic
Baltic may refer to:
Peoples and languages
* Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian
*Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originati ...
Prussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.
In the first half of the 13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the First Mongol invasion of Poland, Mongol invasion and the death of Henry II in Battle of Legnica, battle hindered the unification. As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of History of Germans in Poland, German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes. In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the History of the Jews in Poland, Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.
In 1320, Władysław I the Elbow-high, Władysław I the Short became the first king of Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385), a reunified Poland since Przemysł II in 1296, and the first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by developments in Trail of the Eagle's Nests, castle infrastructure, army, judiciary and Congress of Kraków, diplomacy. Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death. In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the Jagiellonian University, University of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe. Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis I of Hungary, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Kingdom of Hungary, Hungary and Croatia in personal union with Hungary, Croatia in a personal union.
Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga of Poland, Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.
![Battle of Tannenberg](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Battle_of_Tannenberg.jpg)
In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and the Polish–Lithuanian union which spanned the late
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
and early Modern history, Modern Era. The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European personal union, political entities of the time.
In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.
In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), Thirteen Years' War, king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), Peace of Thorn, which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay Homage (feudal), tributes.
The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Kingdom of Bohemia, Bohemia (1471 onwards) and Hungary.
In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, Crimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combat Grand Duchy of Moscow, Russia.
Poland was developing as a feudalism, feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmstead known as folwark, ''folwarks''. In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
, and an upper house, the
Senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
. The ''Nihil novi'' act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislature, legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal szlachta, Polish nobles.
![Wawel View](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Wawel_View.jpg)
The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.
This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and European wars of religion, wars of religion that beset Europe.
In Poland, Nontrinitarianism, Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-called Polish Brethren, who separated from their Calvinism, Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism.
The European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a Renaissance in Poland, cultural awakening.
During the
Polish Golden Age
The Polish Golden Age was the Renaissance period in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, roughly corresponding to the period of rule of the King Sigismund I the Old and his son, Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellonian Dynasty monar ...
, the nation's economy and culture flourished.
The Italian-born Bona Sforza, daughter of the Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to Architecture of Poland, architecture, Polish cuisine, cuisine, language and court customs at Wawel Castle.
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
![Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_in_1619.PNG)
The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
, a unified federal state with an elective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility.
The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, Southeastern Europe, Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately Truce of Deulino, at its peak and was the largest state in Europe. Simultaneously, Poland imposed Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.
In 1573, Henry III of France, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles. When he left Poland to become List of French monarchs, King of France, his successor, Stephen Báthory, led a successful Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory, campaign in the Livonian War, granting Poland more Livonia, lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski, the Chancellor (Poland), Crown Chancellor. Stephen’s successor, Sigismund III Vasa, Sigismund III, defeated a rival House of Habsburg, Habsburg electoral candidate, Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria, Archduke Maximilian III, in the War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father and John III of Sweden, John Vasa, in Kingdom of Sweden, Sweden. The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was War against Sigismund, deposed by the Swedes.
![Jan III Schultz](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Jan_III_Schultz.jpg)
In 1609, Sigismund Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618), invaded Tsardom of Russia, Russia which was engulfed in a Time of Troubles, civil war,
and a year later the Polish Polish hussars, winged hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow, occupied Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at Battle of Klushino, Klushino.
Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Battle of Khotyn (1621), Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II.
Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Sigismund III Vasa#Legacy, Silver Age. The liberal Władysław IV Vasa, Władysław IV effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare. In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the Khmelnytsky Uprising, followed by the decimating Deluge (history), Swedish Deluge during the Second Northern War,
and Prussia's Treaty of Bromberg, independence in 1657.
In 1683, John III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an Ottoman Army (15th-19th centuries), Ottoman Army into Europe at the Battle of Vienna. The House of Wettin, Saxon era, under Augustus II the Strong, Augustus II and Augustus III of Poland, Augustus III, saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition from Stanisław Leszczyński during the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession, War of the Polish Succession (1733).
Partitions
![Stanisław II August Poniatowski in coronation clothes](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Stanis%C5%82aw_II_August_Poniatowski_in_coronation_clothes.PNG)
The Royal elections in Poland, royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski, Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy. His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia. The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states. His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility. The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to intervene.
In 1772, the First Partition of Poland, First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the Partition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#F, fait accompli.
Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated. Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the Polish Enlightenment, Enlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican Neoclassical architecture, neoclassicism. For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Society.
In 1791, Great Sejm, Great Sejm parliament adopted the Constitution of May 3, 1791, 3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy. The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the Polish–Russian War of 1792, 1792 Polish–Russian War. Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition of Poland, Second Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was Third Partition of Poland, partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity.
Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.
Era of insurrections
![Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png)
The Polish people List of wars involving Poland, rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished general Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents.
Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence Third Partition of Poland, for 123 years.
In 1806, an Greater Poland uprising (1806), insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon I of France, Napoleon's advance into Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw, a client state ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly those under Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of the Empire, Marshal of France shortly before his death at Battle of Leipzig, Leipzig in 1813. In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress Kingdom of Poland, the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen, and Austrian Poland, Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków.
In 1830, non-commissioned officers at Warsaw's Corps of Cadets (Warsaw), Officer Cadet School rebelled in what was the November Uprising. After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its Constitution of Congress Poland, constitutional autonomy, Army of Congress Poland, army and legislative assembly. During the Spring of Nations, European Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising (1848), Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere Province of Posen, province; and subsequent integration into the German Empire in 1871. In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864) prompted severe January Uprising#The decades of reprisals, political, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations and pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.
Second Polish Republic
![Józef Piłsudski (-1930)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski_%28-1930%29.jpg)
In the aftermath of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, the Allies of World War I, Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died. Following the Armistice with Germany (Compiègne), armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 1918 and 1939. The state was established on 6 November 1918, before the end of ...
.
The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after List of wars involving Poland, a series of military conflicts, most notably the Polish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw (1920), Battle of Warsaw.
The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski.
In 1926, the May Coup (Poland), May Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja (''Healing'') movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country. By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.
World War II
![7TP Polish Tank](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/7TP_Polish_Tank.png)
World War II began with the Nazi German
invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland (1 September – 6 October 1939) was a joint attack on the Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union which marked the beginning of World War II. The German invasion began on 1 September 1939, one week aft ...
on 1 September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, Siege of Warsaw (1939), Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones, Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other by territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in the Katyn massacre) ahead of Operation Barbarossa.
German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal ''Generalplan Ost''.
Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe,
and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the Polish Armed Forces in the West, west and Soviet leadership in the Polish Armed Forces in the East, east. Polish troops played an important role in the Operation Overlord, Normandy, Italian Campaign (World War II), Italian, North African Campaigns and Operation Pheasant, Netherlands and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino.
Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond, Polish Cipher Bureau, Polish code breakers were responsible for cryptanalysis of the Enigma, cracking the Enigma cipher and Polish scientists participating in the Manhattan Project were co-creators of the American atomic bomb. In the east, the Soviet-backed First Polish Army (1944–1945), Polish 1st Army distinguished itself in the battles for Warsaw Uprising, Warsaw and Battle of Berlin, Berlin.
The Polish resistance movement in World War II, wartime resistance movement, and the Armia Krajowa (''Home Army''), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an Polish Underground State, underground state complete with Education in Poland during World War II, degree-awarding universities and Underground court, a court system.
The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.
![WW2-Holocaust-Poland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG)
Nazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied Poland, including Treblinka extermination camp, Treblinka, Majdanek concentration camp, Majdanek and Auschwitz concentration camp, Auschwitz. The Germans Holocaust train, transported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps. Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles were killed during the German Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), occupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish intelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola massacre, Wola and Ochota massacre, Ochota massacres. Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, Wołyń Massacres. World War II casualties, Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – Holocaust in Poland, half of them Polish Jews. About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.
In 1945, Poland's borders Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II, were shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy Polish population transfers (1944–1946), were expelled along the Curzon Line by Joseph Stalin, Stalin. The western border became the Oder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or . The shift forced the migration of World War II evacuation and expulsion, millions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.
Post-war communism
At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a Yalta betrayal, betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Winston Churchill, Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist state, communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the
Eastern Bloc
The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...
. Anti-Communism in the Communist Bloc, As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with Cursed soldiers, armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.
Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland
(in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP) or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republic ...
throughout the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.
The new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution of 1947, Small Constitution on 19 February 1947. The
Polish People's Republic
The Polish People's Republic ( pl, Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL) was a country in Central Europe that existed from 1947 to 1989 as the predecessor of the modern Republic of Poland. With a population of approximately 37.9 million nea ...
(''Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa'') Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland, was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic, Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989), anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.
Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity (Polish trade union), Solidarity" ("''Solidarność''"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of Martial law in Poland, martial law in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first Contract Sejm, partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually 1990 Polish presidential election, won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the Revolutions of 1989, collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.
Third Polish Republic
![Flowers in front of the Presidential Palace in Warsaw](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Flowers_in_front_of_the_Presidential_Palace_in_Warsaw.jpg)
A shock therapy (economics), shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its Soviet-style socialism, Soviet-style planned economy into a market economy. As with other post-communism, post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 Gross domestic product, GDP levels as early as 1995, although the unemployment rate increased. Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991, and joined
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
in 1999. Poles then voted to join the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
in 2003 Polish European Union membership referendum, a referendum in June 2003, with Poland in the European Union, Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004, following the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, consequent enlargement of the organisation.
Poland joined the
Schengen Area
The Schengen Area ( , ) is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider area of freedom, security and j ...
in 2007, as a result of which, Borders of Poland, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union were dismantled, allowing for Freedom of movement#European Union, full freedom of movement within most of the European Union.
On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash, died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia.
In 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won 2011 Polish parliamentary election, parliamentary elections. In 2014, the Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, was chosen to be President of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister. The 2015 Polish parliamentary election, 2015 and 2019 Polish parliamentary election, 2019 elections were won by the national-conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led by Jarosław Kaczyński, resulting in increased Euroscepticism and Polish constitutional crisis, increased friction with the European Union. In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydło, Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidential 2020 Polish presidential election, election. , the Russian invasion of Ukraine had led to 17 million Ukrainian refugee crisis, Ukrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland.
, 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.
In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in the 2023 Polish parliamentary election, election, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition called Civic Coalition (Poland), Civic Coalition made up of Civic Platform, Third Way (Poland), Third Way, and The Left (Poland), The Left. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party.
Geography
![Poland topo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Poland_topo.jpg)
Poland covers an administrative area of , and is the List of European countries by area, ninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately of the country's territory consists of land, comprises internal waters and is territorial sea.
Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse landforms, Hydrology, water bodies and ecosystems. The central and northern region bordering the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
lie within the flat Northern European Plain, Central European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous. The average Height above sea level, elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.
The country has a coastline spanning ; extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gdańsk Bay, Gulf of Gdańsk in the east.
The beach coastline is abundant in sand dunes, sand dune fields or Beach ridge, coastal ridges and is indented by Spit (landform), spits and lagoons, notably the Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia. The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is Wolin, located within Wolin National Park. Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island with Germany.
The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges; the
Sudetes
The Sudetes ( ; pl, Sudety; german: Sudeten; cs, Krkonošsko-jesenická subprovincie), commonly known as the Sudeten Mountains, is a geomorphological subprovince in Central Europe, shared by Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. They consis ...
in the west and the Carpathian Mountains, Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border. Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy at in elevation, located in the Tatras. The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is Śnieżka, Mount Śnieżka at , shared with the Czech Republic. The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula#Delta, Vistula Delta, which is below sea level.
![Morskie Oko o poranku](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Morskie_Oko_o_poranku.jpg)
Poland's Rivers of Poland, longest rivers are the Vistula River, Vistula, the Oder River, Oder, the Warta, and the Bug River, Bug.
The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District. The largest lakes, covering more than , are Śniardwy and Lake Mamry, Mamry, and the deepest is Hańcza, Lake Hańcza at in depth.
Climate
The climate of Poland is temperateness, temperate transitional, and varies from oceanic climate, oceanic in the north-west to continental climate, continental in the south-east.
The mountainous southern fringes are situated within an alpine climate.
Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around in July, and moderately cold winters averaging in December.
The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is Lower Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around Suwałki in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Podlaskie province, where the climate is affected by cold fronts from Scandinavia and Siberia.
Precipitation (meteorology), Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.
There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.
Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual Temperature anomaly, thermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was , around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.
Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less Rain and snow mixed, sleet and snowfall.
Biodiversity
![2020 żubry 03](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/2020_%C5%BCubry_03.jpg)
Phytogeography, Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country has four Palearctic realm, Palearctic ecoregions – Central, Northern, Western European temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and the Carpathian montane conifer forests, Carpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the Lower Silesian Wilderness. The most common deciduous trees found across the country are oak, maple, and beech; the most common conifers are pine, spruce, and fir. An estimated 69% of all forests are coniferous.
The flora and Fauna of Poland, fauna in Poland is that of Continental Europe, with the European bison, wisent, white stork and white-tailed eagle designated as national animals, and the Papaver rhoeas, red common poppy being the unofficial floral emblem. Among the most protected species is the European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as the Eurasian beaver, the Eurasian lynx, lynx, the gray wolf and the Tatra chamois.
The region was also home to the extinct aurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627. Game animals such as red deer, roe deer, and wild boar are found in most woodlands. Poland is also a significant breeding ground for migratory birds and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.
Around , equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 List of national parks of Poland, Polish national parks, two of which – Białowieża Forest, Białowieża and Bieszczady National Park, Bieszczady – are List of World Heritage Sites in Poland, UNESCO World Heritage Sites. There are 123 areas designated as Landscape Park (Poland), landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other Protected areas of Poland, protected areas under the Natura 2000 network.
Government and politics
Poland is a
unitary
Unitary may refer to:
Mathematics
* Unitary divisor
* Unitary element
* Unitary group
* Unitary matrix
* Unitary morphism
* Unitary operator
* Unitary transformation
* Unitary representation
* Unitarity (physics)
* ''E''-unitary inverse semigroup ...
parliamentary republic
A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number ...
and a representative democracy, with a President of the Republic of Poland, president as the head of state.
The executive power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Poland, Council of Ministers and the Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland, prime minister who acts as the head of government.
The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by parliament.
The head of state is elected by Direct election, popular vote for a five-year term. The current president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Donald Tusk.
Poland's Legislature, legislative assembly is a bicameralism, bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
) and a 100-member upper house (Senate of the Republic of Poland, Senate). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion. The Senate is elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.
The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.
![Zgromadzenie Narodowe 4 czerwca 2014 Kancelaria Senatu 01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Zgromadzenie_Narodowe_4_czerwca_2014_Kancelaria_Senatu_01.JPG)
With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of List of political parties in Poland, political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.
Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed parliamentary immunity.
Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.
Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the National Assembly of the Republic of Poland.
The National Assembly, headed by the Marshal of the Sejm, Sejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal (Poland), State Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.
Administrative divisions
Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as Voivodeships of Poland, voivodeships.
As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (''powiats''), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (''gminas'').
Major cities normally have the status of both ''gmina'' and ''powiat''.
The provinces are largely founded on the borders of Polish historical regions, historic regions, or named for individual cities.
Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (Voivodes of Poland (since 1999), voivode), an elected regional assembly (Voivodeship sejmik, sejmik) and a voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.
Law
![Manuscript of the Constitution of the 3rd May 1791](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Manuscript_of_the_Constitution_of_the_3rd_May_1791.PNG)
The Constitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of Civil law (legal system), civil law. The current democratic constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a multi-party state with freedoms of religion, speech and assembly, prohibits the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture or corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to Strike action, strike.
The judiciary in Poland is composed of the Supreme Court of Poland, Supreme Court as the country's highest judicial organ, the Supreme Administrative Court of Poland, Supreme Administrative Court for the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts (District Court, District, Regional Court (Poland), Regional, Appellate court, Appellate) and the Court-martial, Military Court. The Constitutional Tribunal (Poland), Constitutional and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance of statutory law, thus protecting the Constitution.
Judges are nominated by the National Council of the Judiciary and are appointed for life by the president of Poland, president.
On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.
Poland has a low homicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018. Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level. The country has imposed strict regulations on Abortion in Poland, abortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger; congenital disorder and stillbirth are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.
Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of the federation, federative
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
and its Golden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later democratic movements across the globe.
In 1918, the
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 1918 and 1939. The state was established on 6 November 1918, before the end of ...
became one of the first countries to introduce universal women's suffrage.
Foreign relations
![Ministerstwo Spraw Zagraniczych al](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Ministerstwo_Spraw_Zagraniczych_al._Szucha_23.JPG)
Poland is a
middle power
In international relations, a middle power is a sovereign state that is not a great power nor a superpower, but still has large or moderate influence and international recognition.
The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of ...
and is transitioning into a regional power in Europe. It has a total of 52 representatives in the European Parliament as of 2022.
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
serves as the headquarters for Frontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well as ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, OSCE. Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization, WTO.
In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its Poland–United States relations, relations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closest alliance, allies and strategic partners in Europe. Historically, Poland maintained strong Hungary–Poland relations, cultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".
Military
![F-16 Jastrząb (48)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/F-16_Jastrz%C4%85b_%2848%29.jpg)
The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the Polish Land Forces, Land Forces, the Polish Navy, Navy, the Polish Air Force, Air Force, the Special forces of Poland, Special Forces and the Territorial Defence Force (Poland), Territorial Defence Force.
The military is subordinate to the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.
However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.
Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day (Poland), Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August. As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the Military Gendarmerie (Poland), gendarmerie and home guard, defence force.
Poland ranks List of countries with highest military expenditures, 14th in the world in terms of military expenditures; the country allocates 3.8% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately US$31.6 billion in 2023. From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polish Arms industry, defence manufacturers. Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel. According to SIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.
Compulsory Conscription, military service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.
Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO's military exercises.
Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions, and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.
Security, law enforcement and emergency services
![Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Policja Krakow G719](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Mercedes-Benz_Sprinter_Policja_Krakow_G719.JPG)
Thanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from the threat of natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and tropical cyclones. However, floods have occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the 2010 Central European floods).
Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the Ministry of Interior and Administration (Poland), Ministry of Interior and Administration – the Policja, State Police (''Policja''), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the City Guard (Poland), Municipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard.
Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.
Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carry firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer. Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.
The Internal Security Agency (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief Intelligence agency, counterintelligence instrument safeguarding Poland's internal security, along with Agencja Wywiadu (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad. The Centralne Biuro Śledcze Policji, Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.
Emergency services in Poland consist of the Emergency medical services in Poland, emergency medical services, Search and rescue#Poland, search and rescue units of the Polish Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments, but are a part of the centralised national agency – the Emergency medical services in Poland, National Medical Emergency Service (''Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne'').
Economy
, Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by Economy of the European Union, nominal standards and the fifth largest by List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP), purchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a
developed market
In investing, a developed market is a country that is most developed in terms of its economy and capital markets. The country must be high income, but this also includes openness to foreign ownership, ease of capital movement, and efficiency of ma ...
status in 2018. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.
, around 62% of the employed population works in the Tertiary sector of the economy, service sector, 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector. Although Poland is a member of the European single market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the Polish złoty (zł, PLN).
Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a Globalisation index, high globalisation rate.
The country's largest firms compose the WIG20 and WIG30 Stock market index, indexes, which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by the National Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billion Polish złoty, PLN at the end of 2014. The Central Statistical Office (Poland), Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.
Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe, with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults. It was the only European economy to have avoided the Great Recession, recession of 2008.
The country is the List of countries by exports, 20th largest exporter of goods and services in the world. Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020. In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.
Tourism
![Zamojski ratusz 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Zamojski_ratusz_2.jpg)
Poland experienced a significant increase in the number of tourists after joining the European Union in 2004.
With over 21 million international arrivals in 2019, tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.
Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the sandy beaches in the north, with a trail of nearly every architectural style. The most visited city is
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
, which was the former capital of Poland and serves as a relic of the
Polish Golden Age
The Polish Golden Age was the Renaissance period in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, roughly corresponding to the period of rule of the King Sigismund I the Old and his son, Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellonian Dynasty monar ...
and the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
. Kraków also held Royal coronations in Poland, royal coronations of List of Polish monarchs, most Polish kings and monarchs at Wawel, the nation's chief historical landmark. Among other notable sites in the country is
Wrocław
Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, rou ...
, one of the oldest cities in Poland which was a model for the founding of Kraków. Wrocław is famous for its Wrocław's dwarfs, dwarf statues, a large Market Square, Wrocław, market square with two Ratusz, town halls, and the oldest Wrocław Zoo, Zoological Gardens with one of the world's largest number of animal species. The Polish capital
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
and its historical Warsaw Old Town, Old Town were entirely reconstructed after Destruction of Warsaw, wartime destruction. Other cities attracting countless tourists include
Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
,
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John ...
, Lublin, Toruń as well as the site of the German Auschwitz concentration camp in Oświęcim. A highlight is the 13th-century Wieliczka Salt Mine with its labyrinthine tunnels, underground lake and chapels carved by miners out of rock salt beneath the ground.
Poland has a 770 km long coastline of the southern
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
with many wide sandy beaches, which are frequently visited by tourists in the summer season.
Other tourist destinations include the Masurian Lake District and Białowieża Forest in the east; on the south Karkonosze, the Table Mountains and the Tatra Mountains, where Rysy – the highest peak of Poland, and Orla Perć, Eagle's Path mountain trail are located. The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the extreme south-east.
There are List of castles in Poland, over 100 castles in the country, most in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on the Trail of the Eagles' Nests. The largest castle in the world by land area is situated in Malbork Castle, Malbork, in north-central Poland.
Transport
![WK15 Wrocław Główny (2) Lichen99](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/WK15_Wroc%C5%82aw_G%C5%82%C3%B3wny_%282%29_Lichen99.jpg)
Transport in Poland is provided by means of Rail transport in Poland, rail, Highways in Poland, road, Polish Merchant Navy, marine shipping and List of airports in Poland, air travel. The country is part of EU's
Schengen Area
The Schengen Area ( , ) is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider area of freedom, security and j ...
and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe. Some of the longest European routes, including the European route E30, E30 and European route E40, E40, run through Poland. The country has a good network of Highways in Poland, highways comprising Limited-access road, express roads and Controlled-access highway, motorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's List of countries by road network size, 21st-largest road network, maintaining over of highways in use.
In 2022, the nation had of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France. The Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their own commuter rail, commuter and regional rail. Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport. It is the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines, the country's flag carrier.
Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations using Port of Świnoujście, Świnoujście, Port of Police, Police, Port of Szczecin, Szczecin, Port of Kołobrzeg, Kołobrzeg, Port of Gdynia, Gdynia, Port of Gdańsk, Gdańsk and Elbląg as their base. The Port of Gdańsk is the only port in the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
adapted to receive oceanic vessels. Polferries and Unity Line are the largest Polish ferry operators, with the latter providing roll-on/roll-off and train ferry services to Scandinavia.
Energy
The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely Fossil fuel, fossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions.
Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and Jastrzębska Spółka Węglowa, JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually. After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.
The new Energy in Poland, Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.
Science and technology
![Marie Curie c1920](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg)
Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics. Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was Nicolaus Copernicus (''Mikołaj Kopernik''), who triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Heliocentrism, Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe. He also derived a quantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity. Poland was ranked 41st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.
![Nikolaus Kopernikus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg)
Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional List of universities in Poland, universities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland's Curie Institute (Warsaw), Radium Institute.
In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (with Stefan Banach, Stanisław Mazur, Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) and Warsaw School of Mathematics (with Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Wacław Sierpiński and Antoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among them Benoit Mandelbrot, Leonid Hurwicz, Alfred Tarski, Joseph Rotblat and Nobel Prize laureates Roald Hoffmann, Georges Charpak and Tadeusz Reichstein.
Demographics
Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the List of European countries by population, ninth-most populous country in Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
. It has a population density of . The total fertility rate was estimated at 1.33 children born to a woman in 2021, which is List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate, among the world's lowest. Furthermore, Poland's population is List of countries by median age, aging significantly, and the country has a median age of 42.2.
![Population of Poland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Population_of_Poland.svg)
Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones. In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments. The most populous administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital,
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in its Warsaw metropolitan area, metropolitan area. The Katowice urban area, metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with a population between 2.7 million and 5.3 million residents. Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities of
Wrocław
Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, rou ...
and
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
.
In the Polish census of 2011, 2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish people, Polish identity, 846,719 Silesians, Silesian, 232,547 Kashubians, Kashubian and 147,814 German minority in Poland, German. Other Polish people#National minorities, identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.
Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka. More than 1.7 million Ukrainians, Ukrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017. The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone. According to the Council of Europe, 12,731 Romani people live in Poland.
Languages
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles, people from Poland or of Polish descent
* Polish chicken
*Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin screenwr ...
is the official language, official and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the official languages of the European Union. It is also a second language in parts of neighbouring Lithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools. Contemporary Poland is a linguistically homogeneous nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue. There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland, including one recognised regional language, Kashubian language, Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania. Poland also recognises Bilingual communes in Poland, secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace. According to the Centre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015.
Religion
According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, Roman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.
Poland is one of the Religion in Europe, most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered.
In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance. However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended Mass (liturgy), mass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000. According to ''The Wall Street Journal'', "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the ''Pew Research Center'' in 2018, Poland was Secularization, secularizing the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders."
Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's concordat with the Holy See enables the teaching of religion in public schools. Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of Warsaw Confederation, religious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe. Poland hosted Europe's largest History of the Jews in Poland, Jewish diaspora, and the country was a centre of Ashkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until the The Holocaust, Holocaust.
Contemporary religious minorities include Polish Orthodox Church, Orthodox Christians, Protestants—including Lutherans of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland, Evangelical-Augsburg Church, Pentecostalism, Pentecostals in the Pentecostal Church in Poland, Adventists in the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and other smaller Evangelicalism, Evangelical denominations—Jehovah's Witnesses, Eastern Catholic Churches, Eastern Catholics, Mariavite Church, Mariavites, History of the Jews in Poland, Jews, Islam in Poland, Muslims (Tatars), and Modern Paganism, neopagans, some of whom are members of the Native Polish Church.
Pilgrimages to the Jasna Góra Monastery, a shrine The Most Holy Virgin Mary, Queen of Poland#History, dedicated to the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, Black Madonna, take place annually.
Health
Medical service providers and hospitals (''szpitale'') in Poland are subordinate to the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Poland, Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient care. Poland has a Universal health care, universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive Health insurance, insurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.
According to the HDI, Human Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female); the country has a low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births). In 2019, the principal cause of death was ischemic heart disease; diseases of the circulatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths. In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer of medications and pharmaceutical products.
Education
![Jagiellonian University 05](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Jagiellonian_University_05.jpg)
The Jagiellonian University founded in 1364 by Casimir III the Great, Casimir III in
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
was the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, oldest universities still in continuous operation. Poland's Commission of National Education (''Komisja Edukacji Narodowej''), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.
The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the Ministry of National Education (Poland), Ministry of Education and Science. Kindergarten attendance is optional for children aged between three and five, with one year being compulsory education, compulsory for six-year-olds.
Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.
Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (''General education liceum, liceum''), a five-year technical school (''Technikum (Polish education), technikum'') or various vocational school, vocational studies (''szkoła branżowa'') can be pursued by each individual pupil.
A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (''matura''), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.
In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions, with technical, medical, economic, agricultural, pedagogical, theological, musical, maritime and military faculties. The University of Warsaw and Warsaw Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the Gdańsk University of Technology, University of Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent. There are three conventional academic degrees in Poland – ''Licentiate (degree), licencjat'' or ''Bachelor's degree, inżynier'' (first cycle qualification), ''magister (degree), magister'' (second cycle qualification) and ''PhD, doktor'' (third cycle qualification).
In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Poland's educational system higher than the OECD average; the study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries.
Culture
![Sigismund's Chapel 01 AB](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Sigismund%27s_Chapel_01_AB.jpg)
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year History of Poland, history, and forms an important constituent in the Western world, Western civilisation. The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression ''biało-czerwoni'' ("whitereds"). National symbols, chiefly the crowned white-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems. The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the National Heritage Board of Poland. Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the List of Historic Monuments (Poland), Historic Monuments Register, with further 17 being recognised by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
as World Heritage Sites.
Holidays and traditions
There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January, Epiphany (holiday), Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, International Workers' Day, Labour Day on 1 May, 3 May Constitution Day, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost, Feast of Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, Assumption of Mary, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1 November, Independence Day (Poland), Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.
Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (''Wigilia'') is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Christmas trees, Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers (''opłatek'') are shared between gathered guests and a Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper, twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the Star of Bethlehem, first star appears. An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest. On occasion, Christmas carols, carolers journey around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.
A widely-popular pączki, doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.
Easter egg, Eggs for Easter Sunday, Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated święconka, baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan ''śmigus-dyngus, dyngus'' festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.
Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.
Music
Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such as Frédéric Chopin, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Wieniawski, Karol Szymanowski, and traditional, regionalised folk music, folk composers create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as sung poetry and disco polo.
The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz containing polyphony, polyphonic compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody of ''Bogurodzica'' and ''God Is Born'' (a coronation Polonaise (dance), polonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, Mikołaj z Radomia, Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled '':pl:Krakowiacy i Górale, Krakowiacy i Górale'', which premiered in 1794.
), stylised folk dance in triple meter (1832), commemorating the November Uprising
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Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the Pol'and'Rock Festival, Open'er Festival, Opole Festival and Sopot Festival.
Art
Art in Poland has invariably reflected Art of Europe, European trends, with Polish painting pivoted on folklore, Catholic art, Catholic themes, History painting, historicism and Realism (arts), realism, but also on impressionism and Romanticism in Poland, romanticism. An important art movement was Young Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promoting Decadent movement, decadence, Symbolism (arts), symbolism and art nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the Polish School of Posters.
One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland is ''Lady with an Ermine'' (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci.
Internationally renowned Polish artists include Jan Matejko (historicism), Jacek Malczewski (symbolism), Stanisław Wyspiański (art nouveau), Henryk Siemiradzki (Roman academic art), Tamara de Lempicka (art deco), and Zdzisław Beksiński (dystopian surrealism). Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives of avant-garde, Constructivism (art), constructivist, Minimalism, minimalist and contemporary art movements, including Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław Strzemiński, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alina Szapocznikow, Igor Mitoraj and Wilhelm Sasnal.
Notable art academies in Poland include the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, Art Academy of Szczecin, University of Fine Arts in Poznań and the Eugeniusz Geppert Academy of Fine Arts, Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited at Zachęta, Ujazdów Castle, Ujazdów, and MOCAK, Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków, MOCAK art galleries.
Architecture
The architecture of Poland reflects Architecture of Europe, European architectural styles, with strong historical influences derived from Architecture of Italy, Italy, Architecture of Germany, Germany, and the Low Countries. Settlements founded on Magdeburg rights, Magdeburg Law evolved around Town square, central marketplaces (''plac'', ''rynek''), encircled by a grid or Concentric objects, concentric network of streets forming an old town (''stare miasto''). Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches, Kamienica (architecture), city tenements and Ratusz, town halls. Cloth hall, Cloth hall markets (''sukiennice'') were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture. The mountainous south is known for its Zakopane Style, Zakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland.
The earliest architectonic trend was Romanesque architecture, Romanesque ( 11th century), but its traces in the form of Rotunda (architecture), circular rotundas are scarce. The arrival of brick Gothic ( 13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of Malbork Castle, Malbork, Lidzbark Castle, Lidzbark, Gniew Castle, Gniew and Kwidzyn Castle, Kwidzyn as well as the cathedrals of Gniezno Cathedral, Gniezno, St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Wrocław Cathedral, Wrocław, Frombork Cathedral, Frombork and St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków, Kraków. The
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
(16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensive palazzos and Sigismund's Chapel, mausoleums. Decorative Attic (architecture), attics with pinnacles and arcade (architecture), arcade loggias are elements of Mannerist architecture, Polish Mannerism, found in
Poznań
Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John ...
, Lublin and Zamość.
Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque in Poland, Baroque, Neoclassical architecture in Poland, Neoclassical and Revivalism (architecture), Revivalist styles (17th–19th century).
Primary building materials comprising Lumber, timber or brick, red brick were extensively utilised in Polish folk architecture, and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace. Secular structures such as Dwór (manor house), ''dworek'' manor houses, farmhouses, farmsteads, Granary, granaries, Gristmill, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums (''Open-Air Museum, skansen''). However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of functionalist architecture, functionalist housing estates and residential architecture in Poland, residential areas.
Literature
The Polish literature, literary works of Poland have traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism, spirituality, social allegory, allegories and moral narratives. The earliest examples of Polish literature, written in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, date to the 12th century.
The first
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles, people from Poland or of Polish descent
* Polish chicken
*Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin screenwr ...
phrase ''Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai'' (officially translated as "Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest") was documented in the Book of Henryków and reflected the use of a quern-stone. It has been since included in Memory of the World Programme, UNESCO's Memory of World Register. The oldest extant manuscripts of fine prose in
Old Polish
The Old Polish language ( pl, język staropolski, staropolszczyzna) was a period in the history of the Polish language between the 10th and the 16th centuries. It was followed by the Middle Polish language.
The sources for the study of the Old ...
are the Holy Cross Sermons and the Bible of Queen Sophia, and Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474, Calendarium cracoviense (1474) is Poland's oldest surviving Printing press, print.
The poets Jan Kochanowski and Nicholas Rey became the first
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
authors to write in Polish. Prime literarians of the period included Johannes Dantiscus, Dantiscus, Andreus Fricius Modrevius, Modrevius, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, Goslicius, Matthias Sarbievius, Sarbievius and theologian John Laski. In the Polish Baroque, Baroque era, Jesuits, Jesuit philosophy and local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques of Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (Marinism) and Jan Chryzostom Pasek (Sarmatism, sarmatian memoirs). During the Polish Enlightenment, Enlightenment, playwright Ignacy Krasicki composed the first Polish-language The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom, novel. Poland's leading 19th-century Romanticism in Poland, romantic poets were the Three Bards – Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński and Adam Mickiewicz, whose epic poem ''Pan Tadeusz'' (1834) is a national classic. In the 20th century, the English Impressionism (literature), impressionist and early Literary modernism, modernist writings of Joseph Conrad made him one of the most eminent novelists of all time.
Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised. The philosophical science-fiction, sci-fi novel ''Solaris (novel), Solaris'' by Stanisław Lem and ''The Witcher'' series by Andrzej Sapkowski are celebrated works of world fiction. Poland has six Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel-Prize winning authors – Henryk Sienkiewicz (''Quo Vadis (novel), Quo Vadis''; 1905), Władysław Reymont (''The Peasants''; 1924), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978), Czesław Miłosz (1980), Wisława Szymborska (1996), and Olga Tokarczuk (2018).
Cuisine
![07425 Jahrmarkt in Sanok am 17 Juli 2011](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/07425_Jahrmarkt_in_Sanok_am_17_Juli_2011.jpg)
The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), gołąbki (cabbage rolls), borscht, barszcz (borscht), żurek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup.
Bagels, a type of bread roll, also originated in Poland.
Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce. Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and Searing, seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as Cheesecake, sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (pastry), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka (mille-feuille) cream pie.
Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey Mead in Poland, mead, widespread since the 13th century, Beer in Poland, beer, wine and vodka. The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland. The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.
Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland. Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.
Fashion and design
![Robe à la Polonaise MET DT11155](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Robe_%C3%A0_la_Polonaise_MET_DT11155.jpg)
Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including Helena Rubinstein and Maksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as Max Factor and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics. Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern eyelash extensions. As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer, and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.
Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or Culture of Poland, cultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known as Sarmatism at the turn of the 17th century.
The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included ''Polonaise (clothing), robe à la polonaise'' and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo Polish beds with Canopy bed, canopies became fashionable in French châteaus. Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.
Cinema
![Andrzej Wajda 1974](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Andrzej_Wajda_1974.jpg)
The cinema of Poland traces its origins to 1894, when inventor Kazimierz Prószyński patented the Pleograph and subsequently the Aeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera.
In 1897, Jan Szczepanik constructed the Telectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds.
They are both recognised as pioneers of cinematography.
Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active in Hollywood, Los Angeles, Hollywood, chiefly Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Pola Negri, Samuel Goldwyn, the Warner Brothers, Warner brothers, Max Fleischer, Agnieszka Holland, Krzysztof Zanussi and Krzysztof Kieślowski.
The Film genre, themes commonly explored in Polish cinema include historical film, history, Drama (film and television), drama, war, culture and black realism (film noir).
In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the Academy Awards – ''The Pianist (2002 film), The Pianist'' (2002) by Roman Polański and ''Ida (film), Ida'' (2013) by Paweł Pawlikowski.
Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made by Stanisław Bareja and Juliusz Machulski.
Media
![Siedziba Telewizji Polskiej w Warszawie 2017](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Siedziba_Telewizji_Polskiej_w_Warszawie_2017.jpg)
According to the Eurobarometer, Eurobarometer Report (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch the Television in Poland, television daily.
In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden. Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the public broadcasting corporation Telewizja Polska, TVP, free-to-air channels TVN (Polish TV channel), TVN and Polsat as well as 24-hour news channels TVP Info, TVN 24 and Polsat News. Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were Tabloid (newspaper format), tabloids and socio-political news dailies.
Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are CD Projekt, Techland, The Farm 51, CI Games and People Can Fly.
Some of the popular video games developed in Poland include The Witcher (video game series), The Witcher trilogy and Cyberpunk 2077.
The Polish city of Katowice also hosts Intel Extreme Masters, one of the biggest esports events in the world.
Sports
![National Stadium Warsaw aerial view 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/National_Stadium_Warsaw_aerial_view_2.jpg)
Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions.
Track and field athletics, Track and field, basketball, handball, boxing, Mixed martial arts, MMA, ski jumping, cross-country skiing (sport), cross-country skiing, ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, and Olympic weightlifting, weightlifting are other popular sports.
The golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when the Poland national football team, Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place in 1974 FIFA World Cup, the 1974 and 1982 FIFA World Cup, the 1982 tournaments. The team won a gold medal Football at the Summer Olympics, in football at the 1972 Summer Olympics and two silver medals, 1976 Summer Olympics, in 1976 and 1992 Summer Olympics, in 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted the UEFA Euro 2012, UEFA European Football Championship.
As of June 2024, the Poland men's national volleyball team, Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked FIVB World Rankings, as first in the world. The team won a gold medal at the Volleyball at the 1976 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament, 1976 Summer Olympics and the gold medal at the FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, FIVB World Championship 1974 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, 1974, 2014 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, 2014 and 2018 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, 2018.
Mariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.
Poland has made a distinctive mark Speedway in Poland, in motorcycle speedway racing. The top Speedway Ekstraliga, Ekstraliga division has one of List of attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues#Outdoor sports, the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The Poland national speedway team, national speedway team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being four-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, England in 2021.
In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1 Iga Świątek, winner of five Grand Slam (tennis), Grand Slam singles titles; former World No. 2 Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including 2015 WTA Finals – Singles, 2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP player Hubert Hurkacz; and former World No. 1 doubles player Łukasz Kubot whose career highlights include winning two Grand Slam doubles titles – 2014 Australian Open – Men's doubles, 2014 Australian Open and 2017 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles, 2017 Wimbledon Championships. Poland also won the 2015 Hopman Cup with Agnieszka Radwańska and Jerzy Janowicz representing the country.
Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders. Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.
Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.
Summer Sports in Poland
at Poland For Visitors Online. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
See also
* Outline of Poland
Notes
References
Works cited
*
External links
Gov.pl – Polish national portal
.
Poland
''The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency.
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{{Coord, 52, N, 20, E, type:country_region:PL, display=title
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