Parrotfishes are a group of about 90 fish species regarded as a family (Scaridae), or a subfamily (Scarinae) of the wrasses. With about 95 species, this group's largest species richness is in the

Indo-Pacific The Indo-Pacific is a vast biogeographic region of Earth. In a narrow sense, sometimes known as the Indo-West Pacific or Indo-Pacific Asia, it comprises the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean, and the ...

. They are found in coral reefs, rocky coasts, and seagrass beds, and can play a significant role in

bioerosion Bioerosion describes the breakdown of hard ocean substrates – and less often terrestrial substrates – by living organisms. Marine bioerosion can be caused by mollusks, polychaete worms, phoronids, sponges, crustaceans, echinoids, and ...

Description

Parrotfish are named for their

dentition Dentition pertains to the development of teeth and their arrangement in the mouth. In particular, it is the characteristic arrangement, kind, and number of teeth in a given species at a given age. That is, the number, type, and morpho-physiolo ...

, which is distinct from other fish, including other labrids. Their numerous teeth are arranged in a tightly packed mosaic on the external surface of their jaw bones, forming a parrot-like beak with which they rasp

algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular mic ...

from coral and other rocky substrates (which contributes to the process of

). Maximum sizes vary within the family, with the majority of species reaching in length. However, a few species reach lengths in excess of , and the

green humphead parrotfish The green humphead parrotfish (''Bolbometopon muricatum'') is the largest species of parrotfish, growing to lengths of and weighing up to . It is found on reefs in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from the Red Sea in the west to Samoa in the east ...

can reach up to . The smallest species is the bluelip parrotfish (''Cryptotomus roseus''), which has a maximum size of .

Mucus

Some parrotfish species, including the

queen parrotfish The queen parrotfish (''Scarus vetula'') is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. It is found on reefs in the tropical West Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Other common names include blownose, blue chub ...

(''Scarus vetula''), secrete a mucus cocoon, particularly at night.Cerny-Chipman, E.
Distribution of Ultraviolet-Absorbing Sunscreen Compounds Across the Body Surface of Two Species of Scaridae.

DigitalCollections@SIT
' 2007. Accessed 2009-06-21. Prior to going to sleep, some species extrude mucus from their mouths, forming a protective cocoon that envelops the fish, presumably hiding its scent from potential predators. This mucus envelope may also act as an early warning system, allowing the parrotfish to flee when it detects predators such as moray eels disturbing the membrane. The skin itself is covered in another mucous substance which may have antioxidant properties helpful in repairing bodily damage, or repelling parasites, in addition to providing protection from UV light.

Feeding

Most parrotfish species are

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...

s, feeding mainly on

epilithic Lithophytes are plants that grow in or on rocks. They can be classified as either epilithic (or epipetric) or endolithic; epilithic lithophytes grow on the surfaces of rocks, while endolithic lithophytes grow in the crevices of rocks (and are also ...

algae.Bonaldo, R.M. & R.D. Rotjan (2018). The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Parrotfishes as Coral Predators. ''in'' Hoey, A.S. & R.M. Bonaldo, eds. Biology of Parrotfishes. CRC Press. A wide range of other small organisms are sometimes eaten, including invertebrates ( sessile and

benthic The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean, lake, or stream, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. The name comes from ancient Greek, βένθος (bénthos), meaning "t ...

species, as well as zooplankton), bacteria and

detritus In biology, detritus () is dead particulate organic material, as distinguished from dissolved organic material. Detritus typically includes the bodies or fragments of bodies of dead organisms, and fecal material. Detritus typically hosts commun ...

. A few mostly larger species such as the green humphead parrotfish (''Bolbometopon muricatum'') feed extensively on living coral ( polyps). None of these are exclusive corallivores, but polyps can make up as much as half their diet or even more in the green humphead parrotfish. Overall it has been estimated that fewer than one percent of parrotfish bites involve live corals and all except the green humphead parrotfish prefer algae-covered surfaces over live corals. Nevertheless, when they do eat coral polyps, localized coral death can occur. Their feeding activity is important for the production and distribution of coral sands in the reef biome, and can prevent algal overgrowth of the reef structure. The teeth grow continuously, replacing material worn away by feeding. Whether they feed on coral, rock or seagrasses, the substrate is ground up between the pharyngeal teeth. After they digest the edible portions from the rock, they excrete it as sand, helping create small islands and the sandy beaches. The humphead parrotfish can produce of sand each year. Or, on average (as there are so many variables i.e. size/species/location/depth etc.), almost per parrotfish per day. While feeding, parrotfish must be cognizant of predation by one of their main predators, the lemon shark. On Caribbean coral reefs, parrotfish are important consumers of sponges. An indirect effect of parrotfish grazing on sponges is the protection of reef-building corals that would otherwise be overgrown by fast-growing sponge species. Analysis of parrotfish feeding biology describes three functional groups: excavators, scrapers and browsers. Excavators have larger, stronger jaws that can gouge the substrate, leaving visible scars on the surface. Scrapers have less powerful jaws that can but infrequently do leave visible scraping scars on the substrate. Some of these may also feed on sand instead of hard surfaces. Browsers mainly feed on seagrasses and their

epiphyte An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphytes grow are called phoroph ...

s. Mature excavating species include ''

Bolbometopon muricatum The green humphead parrotfish (''Bolbometopon muricatum'') is the largest species of parrotfish, growing to lengths of and weighing up to . It is found on reefs in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from the Red Sea in the west to Samoa in the east ...

'', ''

Cetoscarus ''Cetoscarus'' is a genus of parrotfish native to the Indo-Pacific. Species * '' Cetoscarus bicolor'' ( Rüppell, 1829) * '' Cetoscarus ocellatus'' (Valenciennes Valenciennes (, also , , ; nl, label=also Dutch, Valencijn; pcd, Valincyinne ...

'', ''

Chlorurus ''Chlorurus '' is a genus of parrotfish from the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Species There are 18 species: *'' Chlorurus atrilunula'' ( Randall & Bruce, 1983) *'' Chlorurus bleekeri'' ( de Beaufort, 1940) *'' Chlorurus bowersi'' ( Snyder, 1909) ...

'' and '' Sparisoma viride''. These excavating species all feed as scrapers in early juvenile stages, but ''

Hipposcarus ''Hipposcarus'' is a genus of marine ray-finned fishes, parrotfish from the family Scaridae. The two species in the genus are distributed in the Indo-Pacific The Indo-Pacific is a vast biogeographic region of Earth. In a narrow sense, so ...

'' and ''

Scarus ''Scarus'' is a genus of parrotfishes. With 52 currently recognised extant species,Froese, R. and D. Pauly, Eds''Scarus''.FishBase. 2013. it is by far the largest genus in this family. The vast majority are found at reefs in the Indo-Pacific, bu ...

'', which also feed as scrapers in early juvenile stages, retain the scraping feeding mode as adults. Browsing species are found in the genera ''

Calotomus ''Calotomus'' is a parrotfish genus from the Indo-Pacific, with a single species ranging into the warmer parts of the east Pacific. Compared to most of their relatives, their colours are relatively dull. Several species in this genus are associat ...

'', ''

Cryptotomus ''Cryptotomus roseus'', the bluelip parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. It is found in the warmer waters of the western Atlantic Ocean. The bluelip parrotfish typically inhabits seagrass beds ...

'', ''

Leptoscarus The marbled parrotfish (''Leptoscarus vaigiensis''), also known as the seagrass parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae and is the only known member of the genus ''Leptoscarus''. It has a wide In ...

'', ''

Nicholsina Nicholsina is a genus of marine ray-finned fishes, parrotfishes from the family Scaridae. They are found in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans. The generic name honours the American ichthyologist John Treadwell Nichols (1883-1958) who was c ...

'' and ''Sparisoma''. Feeding modes reflect habitat preferences, with browsers chiefly living in grassy seabed, and excavators and scrapers on coral reefs. Recently, the microphage feeding hypothesis challenged the prevailing paradigm of parrotfish as algal consumers by proposing that:- “''most parrotfishes are microphages that target cyanobacteria and other protein-rich autotrophic microorganisms that live on (epilithic) or within (endolithic) calcareous substrata, are epiphytic on algae or seagrasses, or endosymbiotic within sessile invertebrates.”''

Life cycle

The development of parrotfishes is complex and accompanied by a series of changes in sex and colour (polychromatism). Most species are

sequential hermaphrodites Sequential hermaphroditism (called dichogamy in botany) is a type of hermaphroditism that occurs in many fish, gastropods, and plants. Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when the individual changes its sex at some point in its life. In particular, ...

, starting as females (known as the initial phase) and then changing to males (the terminal phase). In many species, for example the stoplight parrotfish (''Sparisoma viride''), a number of individuals develop directly to males (i.e., they do not start as females). These directly developing males usually most resemble the initial phase, and often display a different mating strategy than the terminal phase males of the same species.Bester, C.
Stoplight parrotfish.
'' Florida Museum of Natural History, Ichthyology Department. Accessed 15-12-2009 A few species such as the

Mediterranean parrotfish The Mediterranean parrotfish (''Sparisoma cretense'') is a species of parrotfish found at depths up to along rocky shores in the Mediterranean and the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal south to Senegal. It is generally common, but uncommon or rare ...

(''S. cretense'') are secondary gonochorists. This means that some females do not change sex (they remain females throughout their lives), the ones that do change from female to male do it while still immature (reproductively functioning females do not change to males) and there are no males with female-like colors (the initial phase males in other parrotfish). The

marbled parrotfish The marbled parrotfish (''Leptoscarus vaigiensis''), also known as the seagrass parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae and is the only known member of the genus ''Leptoscarus''. It has a wide In ...

(''Leptoscarus vaigiensis'') is the only species of parrotfish known not to change sex. In most species, the initial phase is dull red, brown, or grey, while the terminal phase is vividly green or blue with bright pink, orange or yellow patches. In a smaller number of species the phases are similar, and in the Mediterranean parrotfish the adult female is brightly colored, while the adult male is gray. In most species, juveniles have a different color pattern from adults. Juveniles of some tropical species can alter their color temporarily to mimic other species. Where the sexes and ages differ, the remarkably different phases often were first described as separate species. As a consequence early scientists recognized more than 350 parrotfish species, which is almost four times the actual number. Most tropical species form large schools when feeding and these are often grouped by size. Harems of several females presided over by a single male are normal in most species, with the males vigorously defending their position from any challenge. As pelagic spawners, parrotfish release many tiny, buoyant eggs into the water, which become part of the plankton. The eggs float freely, settling into the coral until hatching. The sex change in parrotfishes is accompanied by changes in circulating steroids. Females have high levels of estradiol, moderate levels of T and undetectable levels of the major fish androgen 11-ketotestosterone. During the transition from initial to terminal coloration phases, concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone rise dramatically and estrogen levels decline. If a female is injected with 11-ketotestosterone, it will cause a precocious change in gonadal, gametic and behavioural sex. Image:Scarus psittacus femelle.jpg, Female ''

Scarus psittacus ''Scarus psittacus'', the common parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. Other common names for this species include the palenose parrotfish, Batavian parrotfish and the rosy-cheek parrotfish. It ...

'' (= initial phase) Image:Scarus psittacus mâle.jpg, Male ''

'' (= terminal phase)

Economic importance

A commercial

fishery Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life; or more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place ( a.k.a. fishing ground). Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both ...

exists for some of the larger species, particularly in the Indo-Pacific, but also for a few others like the

. Protecting parrotfishes is proposed as a way of saving Caribbean coral reefs from being overgrown with seaweed and sponges. Despite their striking colors, their feeding behavior renders them highly unsuitable for most marine aquaria. A new study has discovered that the parrotfish is extremely important for the health of the Great Barrier Reef; it is the only one of thousands of reef fish species that regularly performs the task of scraping and cleaning inshore coral reefs.

Taxonomy

Traditionally, the parrotfishes have been considered to be a family level taxon, Scaridae. Although phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses of parrotfishes are ongoing, they are now accepted to be a

clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...

in the tribe Cheilini, and are now commonly referred to as scarine labrids (subfamily Scarinae, family Labridae). Some authorities have preferred to maintain the parrotfishes as a family-level taxon,Randall, J. E. (2007). ''Reef and Shore Fishes of the Hawaiian Islands.'' resulting in Labridae not being

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...

(unless split into several families). Nonetheless, according to the World Register of Marine Species the group is divided into two subfamilies as follows : * sub-family

Scarinae Parrotfishes are a group of about 90 fish species regarded as a family (Scaridae), or a subfamily (Scarinae) of the wrasses. With about 95 species, this group's largest species richness is in the Indo-Pacific. They are found in coral reefs, r ...

** genus ''

Bolbometopon The green humphead parrotfish (''Bolbometopon muricatum'') is the largest species of parrotfish, growing to lengths of and weighing up to . It is found on reefs in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from the Red Sea in the west to Samoa in the east ...

'' Smith, 1956 (1 species) ** genus ''

'' Smith, 1956 (2 species) ** genus ''

'' Swainson, 1839 (18 species) ** genus ''

'' Smith, 1956 (2 species) ** genus ''

'' Forsskål, 1775 (53 species) * sub-family Sparisomatinae ** genus ''

'' Gilbert, 1890 (5 species) ** genus ''

'' Cope, 1870 (1 species) ** genus ''

'' Swainson, 1839 (1 species) ** genus ''

'' Fowler, 1915 (3 species) ** genus ''

Sparisoma ''Sparisoma'' is a genus of parrotfishes native to warmer parts of the Atlantic. FishBase recognizes 15 species in this genus, including ''S. rocha'' described from Trindade Island in 2010 and ''S. choati'' described from the East Atlantic in 20 ...

'' Swainson, 1839 (15 species) More recent studies retain the Scaridae as a family but place it alongside the wrasses of the family Labridae and the weed whitings Odacidae in the

order Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...

Labriformes, part of the Percomorpha. They also do not support the division of the Scaridae into two subfamilies.

Gallery

Image:Scarus globiceps mâle.jpg, ''

Scarus globiceps ''Scarus globiceps'', commonly known as the globehead, violet-lined, speckled or roundhead parrotfish, is a marine fish native to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, where it lives in coral reefs. French naturalist Achille Valenciennes described the g ...

'' (male) File:Parrotfish turquoisse.jpg, ''

Chlorurus microrhinos ''Chlorurus microrhinos'', the blunt-head parrotfish or steephead parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae. It is found in the Indo-Pacific region. Distribution This species is one of the most wi ...

'' File:Bolbometopon muricatum.jpg, ''

'' File:Viridescent Parrotfish - Calotomus viridescens.jpg, ''

Calotomus viridescens ''Calotomus viridescens'', commonly known as the viridescent- or dotted parrotfish, is a species of parrotfish native to the waters of the Maldives, and Red Sea, from the Gulf of Aqaba to south to the Chagos Archipelago. It was described by the ...

'' File:Cetoscarus ocellatus Great Barrier Reef.jpg, ''

Cetoscarus ocellatus ''Cetoscarus ocellatus'', common name Spotted parrotfish, is a species of parrotfish belonging to the family Scaridae. Taxonomy This species was formerly considered to be the same species as '' Cetoscarus bicolor'', which is otherwise restricte ...

'' File:Chlorurus sordidus by Jaroslaw Barski.jpg, ''

Chlorurus sordidus ''Chlorurus sordidus'', known commonly as the daisy parrotfish or bullethead parrotfish, is a species of marine fish in the family Scaridae. Description The initial phase has very variable colouration. The smaller fishes can be a uniform dark ...

'' File:Hipposcarus longiceps.jpg, ''

Hipposcarus longiceps ''Hipposcarus longiceps'' or Pacific longnose parrotfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish in the family Scaridae. It is found in the eastern Indian Oceans and the western Pacific Ocean from the Cocos-Keeling Islands and Rowle ...

'' File:Queen parrotfish Scarus vetula (2442375123).jpg, '' Scarus vetula'' File:Stoplight-parrotfish.jpg, '' Sparisoma viride''

Timeline of genera

ImageSize = width:1000px height:auto barincrement:15px PlotArea = left:10px bottom:50px top:10px right:10px Period = from:-65.5 till:10 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:-65.5 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:-65.5 TimeAxis = orientation:hor AlignBars = justify Colors = #legends id:CAR value:claret id:ANK value:rgb(0.4,0.3,0.196) id:HER value:teal id:HAD value:green id:OMN value:blue id:black value:black id:white value:white id:cenozoic value:rgb(0.54,0.54,0.258) id:paleogene value:rgb(0.99,0.6,0.32) id:paleocene value:rgb(0.99,0.65,0.37) id:eocene value:rgb(0.99,0.71,0.42) id:oligocene value:rgb(0.99,0.75,0.48) id:neogene value:rgb(0.999999,0.9,0.1) id:miocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.999999,0) id:pliocene value:rgb(0.97,0.98,0.68) id:quaternary value:rgb(0.98,0.98,0.5) id:pleistocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.95,0.68) id:holocene value:rgb(0.999,0.95,0.88) BarData= bar:eratop bar:space bar:periodtop bar:space bar:NAM1 bar:NAM2 bar:space bar:period bar:space bar:era PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(7,-4) bar:periodtop from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text: Paleocene from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text: Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:

Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the epoch are well identified but the ...

from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text: Miocene from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text: Plio. from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text: Pleist. from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text: H. bar:eratop from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:

Paleogene The Paleogene ( ; British English, also spelled Palaeogene or Palæogene; informally Lower Tertiary or Early Tertiary) is a geologic period, geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period million yea ...

from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:

Neogene The Neogene ( ), informally Upper Tertiary or Late Tertiary, is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya. ...

from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text: Q. PlotData= align:left fontsize:M mark:(line,white) width:5 anchor:till align:left color:oligocene bar:NAM1 from: -33.9 till: 0 text:

PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 bar:period from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text: Paleocene from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text: Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:

from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:

from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text: Q.

References

External links

*
Parrotfish info
on Fishbase {{Authority control Labriformes Marine fish families Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque

Description

Mucus

Feeding

Life cycle

Economic importance

Taxonomy

Gallery

Timeline of genera

References

Further reading

External links