Plain language is writing designed to ensure the reader understands as quickly, easily, and completely as possible. Plain language strives to be easy to read, understand, and use.
It avoids
verbose
Verbosity or verboseness is speech or writing that uses more words than necessary. The opposite of verbosity is plain language. Some teachers, including the author of ''The Elements of Style'', warn against verbosity; similarly Mark Twain and E ...
, convoluted language and
jargon
Jargon is the specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity. Jargon is normally employed in a particular Context (language use), communicative context and may not be well understood outside that context. The conte ...
. In many countries, laws mandate that public agencies use plain language to increase access to programs and services. The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international human rights treaty of the United Nations intended to protect the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities. Parties to the convention are required to promote, ...
includes plain language in its definition of ''communication''.
Definition
Most
literacy
Literacy in its broadest sense describes "particular ways of thinking about and doing reading and writing" with the purpose of understanding or expressing thoughts or ideas in written form in some specific context of use. In other words, huma ...
and
communication
Communication (from la, communicare, meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with") is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term may also refer to the message communicated through such transmissions or the field of inquir ...
s scholars agree that plain language means:
* "Clear and effective communication" (
Joseph Kimble
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the mo ...
)
* "The idiomatic and grammatical use of language that most effectively presents ideas to the reader" (
Bryan Garner
Bryan Andrew Garner (born 1958) is an American lawyer, lexicographer, and teacher who has written more than two dozen books about English usage and style such as ''Garner's Modern English Usage'' for a general audience, and others for legal profe ...
)
* "Clear, straightforward expression, using only as many words as are necessary. It is language that avoids obscurity, inflated vocabulary and convoluted construction. It is not baby talk, nor is it a simplified version of ... language." (Dr
Robert Eagleson
The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of ''Hrōþ, Hruod'' ( non, Hróðr) "fame, glory ...
)
* "A literary style that is easy-to-read because it matches the reading skill of the audience" (
William DuBay
William Henry DuBay was a former Catholic priest and activist whose activities and suspension from the priesthood created controversy in the mid-1960s. He has since published widely on Church reform, the rights of ethnic and sexual minorities, a ...
)
* "Language that is ''clear, concise'' and ''correct"'' (
Richard Wydick
Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from Frankish language, Old Frankish and is a Compound (linguistics), compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language, Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' an ...
)
* "Language that allows readers to make an informed decision about the content because it considers their literacy levels, cognitive abilities, contexts, wants, needs, attitudes and challenges." (
Candice Burt Candice is a given name and a variant spelling of the name Candace (given name), Candace.
People
Notable people with the name include:
*Candice Accola, American actress (''The Vampire Diaries'')
*Candice Carty-Williams, British writer
*Candice ...
)
Plain language focuses on ways of writing a text so that it is clear, concise, pertinent, efficient, and flows well for the reader. The Center for Plain Language states that: "
document, web site or other information is in plain language if the target audience can read it, understand what they read, and confidently act on it".
[Write better. (2014). Center for plain language. Retrieved from : http://centerforplainlanguage.org/5-steps-to-plain-language/] Writing in plain language does not mean oversimplifying the concepts, but presenting the information in a way that makes it easier to understand and use by a wider audience.
[Public Works and Government Services Canada. (2014). 13 Plain Language. The Canadian Style. Retrieved from : http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chapsect13&info0=13; and About Plain Language. (n.d.). Plain Language Association International. Retrieved from : http://www.plainlanguagenetwork.org/About_Plain_Language/aboutplainlanguage.html] Texts written in plain language are still formal, but are easier to read and inspire confidence for the reader.
Using plain language in communications ultimately improves efficiency, because there is less ambiguity for the readers, and less time is taken for clarifications and explanations.
[About Plain Language. (n.d.). Plain Language Association International. Retrieved from : http://www.plainlanguagenetwork.org/About_Plain_Language/aboutplainlanguage.html] Clear communication improves the user's experience with the organization, ultimately creating trust in the company.
Guidelines and tips
Writers who wish to write in plain language must first and foremost consider their target audience.
This should influence what information is included in the text and how it is written.
Different audiences have different needs, and require different information.
When writing, it is important to consider what the target audience needs to accomplish, and what and how much information they need to complete it.
The needs of the target audience will also affect the chosen vocabulary: writing for someone in the same field as the author is different than writing for someone for whom English is his or her second language.
[Public Works and Government Services Canada. (2014). 13 Plain Language. The Canadian Style. Retrieved from : http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chapsect13&info0=13]
Provide informative headings, topic sentences, and frequent summaries to help orient the reader. For complex documents, create a comprehensive table of contents.
Organize the text logically: the most important information should be mentioned first, in the text as a whole and in every individual paragraph.
Headings help the reader skim the text more rapidly to find what he or she is looking for.
Sentences should be kept short, and only include necessary information.
A long, verbose sentence tends to present too much information at once, and blurs its main point.
The text should be direct and concise, and have an easy flow to it.
The chosen vocabulary must remain simple and familiar.
Everyday language should be favoured against acronyms, jargon and legal language.
Plain language favours the use of the verb form of the word, instead of the noun form.
To increase clarity, use the active voice, in which the subject does the action of the verb.
Sentences written in plain language have a positive construction and address the reader directly.
Writing in plain language also takes into account the presentation of the text. It is important to choose a font that is easy to read, and set it to an adequate size.
Sentences written in capital letters are harder to read because the letters are less distinguishable from one another.
Simple design elements like leaving white spaces, using bullets, and choosing contrasting colours encourages a user to read the text and increases readability.
Purposes
Reading comprehension
Proponents of plain language adoption argue that it improves reading comprehension and readability, and grants readers greater access to information.
Simple language allows documents to be read and understood by a larger audience, as plain language adoption often involves rewriting very technical and field-specific documents, like legal and medical documents.
Accessibility
Some scholars promote plain language use as a means of making documents accessible, especially for disabled readers or those who lack the expertise and education to understand overly technical documents. Simpler language can decrease a reader's cognitive load, and improve information retention in readers who normally struggle to read complex documents.
Changes in font, text size, and color can make texts more readable for individuals with impaired vision. Some scholars view plain language from a social justice perspective as a means of increasing equal access to information, especially for marginalized populations that might have decreased access to education.
Ethical Action
While plain language has positive practical outcomes across many situations, it can also be understood within the framework of ethical action.
While not all plain language practitioners and scholars agree that "Plain language is a civil right," as the motto for the US-based Center for Plain Language declares, many practitioners agree that using plain language is part of ethical action, such as being responsive, respectful, honest, truthful and fair. On the other hand, plain language can also be used for unethical ends, such as to obscure or withhold truths. Willerton proposes the BUROC framework for identifying situations requiring the ethical action of plain language: Bureaucratic, Unfamiliar, Rights Oriented, Critical.
Examples
History
Early history
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
argued, "When you wish to instruct, be brief; that men's minds take in quickly what you say, learn its lesson, and retain it faithfully. Every word that is unnecessary only pours over the side of a brimming mind."
Shakespeare parodied the pretentious style, as in the speeches of Dogberry in ''
Much Ado About Nothing
''Much Ado About Nothing'' is a comedy by William Shakespeare thought to have been written in 1598 and 1599.See textual notes to ''Much Ado About Nothing'' in ''The Norton Shakespeare'' ( W. W. Norton & Company, 1997 ) p. 1387 The play ...
''.
The plain, or native style, was, in fact, an entire literary tradition during the English Renaissance, from
John Skelton John Skelton may refer to:
*John Skelton (poet) (c.1460–1529), English poet.
* John de Skelton, MP for Cumberland (UK Parliament constituency)
*John Skelton (died 1439), MP for Cumberland (UK Parliament constituency)
*John Skelton (American footb ...
through
Ben Jonson
Benjamin "Ben" Jonson (c. 11 June 1572 – c. 16 August 1637) was an English playwright and poet. Jonson's artistry exerted a lasting influence upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours; he is best known for t ...
and include such poets as
Barnabe Googe
Barnabe Googe (11 June 15407 February 1594), also spelt Barnabe Goche and Barnaby Goodge, was a poet and translator, one of the earliest English pastoral poets.
Early life
Barnabe Googe, born 11 June 1540 (St Barnabas Day), in Alvingham, Linc ...
,
George Gascoigne
George Gascoigne (c. 15357 October 1577) was an English poet, soldier and unsuccessful courtier. He is considered the most important poet of the early Elizabethan era, following Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and leading to t ...
,
Walter Raleigh
Sir Walter Raleigh (; – 29 October 1618) was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebellion ...
, and perhaps the later work of
Fulke Greville
Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke, ''de jure'' 13th Baron Latimer and 5th Baron Willoughby de Broke KB PC (; 3 October 1554 – 30 September 1628), known before 1621 as Sir Fulke Greville, was an Elizabethan poet, dramatist, and statesman wh ...
. In addition to its purely linguistic plainness, the Plain Style employed an emphatic, pre-Petrarchan
prosody (each syllable either clearly stressed or clearly unstressed).
19th century
By the end of the 19th century, scholars began to study the features of plain language. A. L. Sherman, a professor of English literature at the University of Nebraska, wrote ''Analytics of Literature: A Manual for the Objective Study of English Prose and Poetry'' in 1893. In this work, Sherman showed that the typical English sentence has shortened over time and that spoken English is a pattern for written English.
Sherman wrote:
Literary English, in short, will follow the forms of the standard spoken English from which it comes. No man should talk worse than he writes, no man writes better than he should talk.... The oral sentence is clearest because it is the product of millions of daily efforts to be clear and strong. It represents the work of the race for thousands of years in perfecting an effective instrument of communication.
1900 to 1950
Two 1921 works, Harry Kitson's "The Mind of the Buyer", and
Edward L. Thorndike
Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of c ...
's "The Teacher's Word Book" picked up where Sherman left off. Kitson's work was the first to apply empirical psychology to advertising. He advised the use of short words and sentences. Thorndike's work contained the frequency ratings of 10,000 words. He recommended using the ratings in his book to grade books not only for students in schools but also for average readers and adults learning English. Thorndike wrote:
It is commonly assumed that children and adults prefer trashy stories in large measure because they are more exciting and more stimulating in respect to sex. There is, however, reason to believe that greater ease of reading in respect to vocabulary, construction, and facts, is a very important cause of preference. A count of the vocabulary of "best sellers" and a summary of it in terms of our list would thus be very instructive.
The 1930s saw many studies on how to make texts more readable. In 1931, Douglas Tyler and Ralph Waples published the results of their two-year study, "What People Want to Read About". In 1934, Ralph Ojemann,
Edgar Dale
Edgar Dale (April 27, 1900 in Benson, Minnesota, – March 8, 1985 in Columbus, Ohio) was an American educator who developed the Cone of Experience, also known as the Learning Pyramid. He made several contributions to audio and visual instruc ...
, and Ralph Waples published two studies on writing for adults with limited reading ability. In 1935, educational psychologist
William S. Gray
William S. Gray (1885–1960) was an American educator and literacy advocate.
Life and career
Gray was born in the town of Coatsburg, Illinois, on June 5, 1885. He graduated from high school in 1904 and began teaching in a one-room school hou ...
teamed up with Bernice Leary to publish their study, "What Makes a Book Readable".
George Orwell
Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitar ...
's 1946 essay "
Politics and the English Language
"Politics and the English Language" (1946) is an essay by George Orwell that criticised the "ugly and inaccurate" written English of his time and examined the connection between political orthodoxies and the debasement of language.
The essay ...
" decried the pretentious diction, meaninglessness, vagueness, and worn-out idioms of political jargon. In 1979, the
Plain English Campaign
The Plain English Campaign (PEC) is a commercial editing and training firm based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1979 by Chrissie Maher, the company is a world leader in plain-language advocacy, working to persuade organisations in the UK and ...
was founded in London to combat "gobbledegook, jargon and legalese".
1951 to 2000
Lyman Bryson
Lyman Lloyd Bryson (July 11, 1888 – November 24, 1959) was an American educator, media advisor and author known for his work in educational radio and television programs for CBS from the 1930s through the 1950s.
Biography
Born in Valentine, ...
at Teachers College in Columbia University led efforts to supply average readers with more books of substance dealing with science and current events. Bryson's students include Irving Lorge and
Rudolf Flesch
Rudolf Franz Flesch (8 May 1911 – 5 October 1986) was an Austrian-born naturalized American writer (noted for his book ''Why Johnny Can't Read''), and also a readability expert and writing consultant who was a vigorous proponent of plain Engli ...
, who became leaders in the plain-language movement. In 1975, Flesch collaborated with
J. Peter Kincaid J. Peter Kincaid (born 1942) is a scientist and educator who is the founding director of the Modeling and Simulation Ph.D. program at the University of Central Florida. Trained as a human factors psychologist at the Ohio State University, Kincaid h ...
to create the
Flesch-Kincaid readability test, which uses an algorithm to produce grade level scores that predict the level of education required to read the selected text. The instrument looks at word length (number of letters) and sentence length (number of words) and produces a score that is tied to a U.S. grade school level. For example, a score of 8.0 means that an eighth grader can read the document.
Others who later led plain language and readability research include educator Edgar Dale of Ohio State,
Jeanne S. Chall of the Reading Laboratory of Harvard, and George R. Klare of Ohio University. Their efforts spurred the publication of over 200 readability formulas and 1,000 published studies on readability.
Beginning in 1935, a series of literacy surveys showed that the average reader in the U.S. was an adult of limited reading ability. Today, the average adult in the U.S. reads at the 9th-grade level.
Access to health information, educational and
economic development
In the economics study of the public sector, economic and social development is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and o ...
opportunities, and government programs is often referred to in a social justice context. To ensure more community members can access this information, many adult educators, legal writers, and social program developers use plain language principles when they develop public documents. The goal of plain language translation is to increase accessibility for those with lower literacy levels.
In the United States, the movement towards plain language legal writing began with the 1963 book ''Language of the Law'', by David Mellinkoff.
However, the movement was popularized by Richard Wydick's 1979 book ''Plain English for Lawyers.''
This was followed by famous plain language
promissory note
A promissory note, sometimes referred to as a note payable, is a legal instrument (more particularly, a financing instrument and a debt instrument), in which one party (the ''maker'' or ''issuer'') promises in writing to pay a determinate sum of ...
s by Nationwide Mutual Insurance and Citibank in the 1970s.
Concerned about the large number of suits against its customers to collect bad debts, the bank voluntarily made the decision to implement plain language policies in 1973. That same decade, the consumer-rights movement won legislation that required plain language in contracts, insurance policies, and government regulations. American
law school
A law school (also known as a law centre or college of law) is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction.
Law degrees Argentina
In Argentina, ...
s began requiring students to take legal writing classes that encouraged them to use plain English as much as possible and to avoid legal jargon, except when absolutely necessary. Public outrage with the skyrocketing number of unreadable government forms led to the
Paperwork Reduction Act
The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 (Pub. L. No. 96-511, 94 Stat. 2812, codified at ) is a United States federal law enacted in 1980 designed to reduce the total amount of paperwork burden the federal government imposes on private businesses and c ...
of 1980.
In 1972, the Plain Language Movement received practical political application, when President
Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and was ...
decreed that the "Federal Register be written in layman's terms". On March 23, 1978, U.S. President
Jimmy Carter
James Earl Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party, he previously served as th ...
signed Executive Order 12044, which said that federal officials must see that each regulation is "written in plain English and understandable to those who must comply with it".
["Background: Plain Writing Legislative History, 2007-2010"]
, 2010, Irwin Berent, Plain Writing Association President Ronald Reagan rescinded these orders in 1981, but many political agencies continued to follow them. By 1991, eight states had also passed legislation related to plain language. Plain Language Association International (PLAIN) was formed in 1993 as the Plain Language Network. Its membership is international; it was incorporated as a non-profit organization in Canada in 2008.
In June 1998, President
Bill Clinton
William Jefferson Clinton ( né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and agai ...
issued a memorandum that called for executive departments and agencies to use plain language in all government documents.
[ Vice President ]Al Gore
Albert Arnold Gore Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician, businessman, and environmentalist who served as the 45th vice president of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. Gore was the Democratic Part ...
subsequently spearheaded a plain language initiative that formed a group called the Plain Language Action Network (PLAIN) to provide plain language training to government agencies.
21st century
PLAIN provided guidance to federal executive agencies
An executive agency is a part of a government department that is treated as managerially and budgetarily separate, to carry out some part of the executive functions of the United Kingdom government, Scottish Government, Welsh Government or Nor ...
when President Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II ( ; born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who served as the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, Obama was the first African-American president of the U ...
signed the Plain Writing Act of 2010
On June 1, 1998, President Bill Clinton issued a Memorandum on Plain Language in Government Writing.PDF The rationale for this memorandum was to "make the Government more responsive, accessible, and understandable in its communications with the pu ...
, which required federal executive agencies to put all new and revised covered documents into plain language. The Act's sponsor, U.S. Representative Bruce Braley
Bruce Lowell Braley (born October 30, 1957) is an American politician and attorney who served as the U.S. representative for from 2007 to 2015. A member of the Democratic Party, he was defeated in his attempt to win an open seat in the 2014 Unit ...
, noted upon its passage that "The writing of documents in the standard vernacular English language will bolster and increase the accountability of government within America and will continue to more effectively save time and money in this country."
Plain language is also gaining traction in U.S. courts and legal aid
Legal aid is the provision of assistance to people who are unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system. Legal aid is regarded as central in providing access to justice by ensuring equality before the law, the right to co ...
agencies. California was the first state to adopt plain language court forms and instructions, for which it received the 2003 Burton Award for Outstanding Reform. A 2006 comparative study of plain language court forms concluded that "plain language court forms and instructions are better understood, easier to use, and more economical".
The European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
provides European standards for making information easy to read and understand. The rules are comparable to the rules for plain language. Based in Germany there is a dictionary for plain language called Hurraki. In France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
, a 2002 decision by the Constitutional Council Constitutional Council might refer to:
* Constitutional Council (Chad)
* Constitutional Council (France)
* Constitutional Council (Ivory Coast)
* Constitutional Council (Sri Lanka)
* Constitutional Council (Cambodia)
* Constitutional Council (Kaz ...
recognized a constitutional goal of ensuring the "clarity and intelligibility" of French law. In 2013 the Israeli Knesset passed service accessibility regulations which mandated the use of simple language and/or language simplification (Hebrew = פישוט לשוני), which were subsequently codified in 2015 for implementation.
ISO
ISO is the most common abbreviation for the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO or Iso may also refer to: Business and finance
* Iso (supermarket), a chain of Danish supermarkets incorporated into the SuperBest chain in 2007
* Iso ...
has formed a Working Group within Technical Committee ISO/TC 37
ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards and other documents concerning methodology and principles for terminology and language resources.
Title: Terminology an ...
to develop plain language standards and guidelines. Their work began officially towards the end of 2019.
See also
*Laconic phrase
A laconic phrase or laconism is a concise or terse statement, especially a blunt and elliptical rejoinder. It is named after Laconia, the region of Greece including the city of Sparta, whose ancient inhabitants had a reputation for verbal auster ...
*Legal writing
Legal writing involves the analysis of fact patterns and presentation of arguments in documents such as legal memoranda and briefs. One form of legal writing involves drafting a balanced analysis of a legal problem or issue. Another form of legal ...
*Linguistic purism in English
Linguistic purism in English involves opposition to foreign influence in the English language. English has evolved with a great deal of borrowing from other languages, especially Old French, since the Norman conquest of England, and some of its n ...
*List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
This list contains Germanic elements of the English language which have a close corresponding Latinate form. The correspondence is semantic—in most cases these words are not cognates, but in some cases they are doublets, i.e., ultimately deri ...
*Plain English
Plain English (or layman's terms) are groups of words that are to be clear and easy to know. It usually avoids the use of rare words and uncommon euphemisms to explain the subject. Plain English wording is intended to be suitable for almost anyone, ...
*Readability
Readability is the ease with which a reader can understand a written text. In natural language, the readability of text depends on its content (the complexity of its vocabulary and syntax) and its presentation (such as typographic aspects that a ...
* Scribes: The American Society of Legal Writers
Opposites of plain language
*Aureation
Aureation ("to make golden", from la, aureus) is a device in arts of rhetoric that involves the " gilding" (or supposed heightening) of diction in one language by the introduction of terms from another, typically a classical language considere ...
*Corporate jargon
Corporate jargon, variously known as corporate speak, corporate lingo, business speak, business jargon, management speak, workplace jargon, corporatese or commercialese, is the jargon often used in large corporations, bureaucracies, and similar wor ...
*Gobbledygook
Gibberish, also called jibber-jabber or gobbledygook, is speech that is (or appears to be) nonsense. It may include speech sounds that are not actual words, pseudowords, or language games and specialized jargon that seems nonsensical to outside ...
*Legalese
Legal writing involves the analysis of fact patterns and presentation of arguments in documents such as legal memoranda and briefs. One form of legal writing involves drafting a balanced analysis of a legal problem or issue. Another form of legal ...
*Psychobabble
Psychobabble (a portmanteau of "psychology" or "psychoanalysis" and "babble") is a form of speech or writing that uses psychological jargon, buzzwords, and esoteric language to create an impression of truth or plausibility. The term implies that ...
*Technobabble
Technobabble (a portmanteau of ''technology'' and ''babble''), also called technospeak, is a type of nonsense that consists of buzzwords, esoteric language, or technical jargon. It is common in science fiction.
See also
* Academese
* Bullshit
...
*Verbosity
Verbosity or verboseness is speech or writing that uses more words than necessary. The opposite of verbosity is plain language. Some teachers, including the author of ''The Elements of Style'', warn against verbosity; similarly Mark Twain and Er ...
References
{{Authority control
Disability rights
Legal communication
Stylistics
Legal writing
Linguistic purism
Plain English