Pirate radio
Pirate radio or a pirate radio station is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid license.
In some cases, radio stations are considered legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially w ...
exists in most countries in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
.
Belgium (from international waters)
(See also Netherlands; many
Dutch language
Dutch ( ) is a West Germanic language spoken by about 25 million people as a first language and 5 million as a second language. It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language
The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-Europea ...
stations were aimed at both countries)
*1962
::Radio Antwerpen broadcast from the concrete vessel ''Uilenspiegel''. Owner Georges De Caluwé died in December that year, and three days later the ship broke its anchor and ran aground across the border in the Netherlands.
*1973
::Radio Atlantis broadcast in Dutch from the
Merchant vessel
A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are us ...
''Mi Amigo''. When its contract was taken over by Radio Mi Amigo, Radio Atlantis transferred to the MV ''Jeanine'' in 1974 and added an English service, but its signal was poor and it closed on 31 August, the day before the passage of the Dutch MOA, one hour after Radio Veronica and one hour before RNI.
*1974
::Radio Mi Amigo broadcast in Dutch from the MV ''Mi Amigo'' (
Radio Caroline
Radio Caroline is a British radio station founded in 1964 by Ronan O'Rahilly and Alan Crawford initially to circumvent the record companies' control of popular music broadcasting in the United Kingdom and the BBC's radio broadcasting monopoly. ...
's ship) 1974–1978, and from the MV ''Magdalena'' (1979).
Denmark
*1958
::
Radio Mercur
Radio Mercur was a Danish offshore broadcasting commercial radio station. It started regular transmission on 2 August 1958 and ceased officially on 31 July 1962, followed by 3 days of transmissions from 13 to 15 August 1962. Later broadcasting to ...
begins transmissions from the MV Cheeta on 2 August.
*1961
::DCR (Danmarks Commercielle Radio) begins transmissions from the MV Lucky Star on 15 September. DCR later united with Radio Mercur.
*1962
::Radio Mercur ends transmissions due to a Danish law that prohibits assistance to illegal broadcasting directed to a Danish audience.
*2006
::Pirat radio 69 was located in the activist house "Ungdomshuset" in Copenhagen from 14 December 2006 to 1 March 2007.
*2012
::Byens Radio 89,7fm started broadcasting in central, Northern and Southern Copenhagen with micro powered radio equipment, inspired by Mbanna Kantako and his family from humanrightsradio.net (Springfield, Illinois, USA). It went on a week-long break starting mid-February 2012 after a detection van was spotted near the broadcasting site. As of 15 May 2012, Byens Radio has been broadcasting for the second longest period of time, for a pirate radio station in Denmark. The longest being
Radio Mercur
Radio Mercur was a Danish offshore broadcasting commercial radio station. It started regular transmission on 2 August 1958 and ceased officially on 31 July 1962, followed by 3 days of transmissions from 13 to 15 August 1962. Later broadcasting to ...
. Though it is the longest lasting non-commercial pirate radio station in the history of Denmark.
::The leftwing activist website Modkraft.dk has evidence that Byens Radio broadcast from 31 December. The police's detection van never got close enough to stop the actual broadcasting but only encouraged the activist group behind the radio to move the broadcasting site elsewhere in order to avoid getting evicted. By moving from one base to another several times, the broadcasters were never found. Many newspaper articles and web sites document its existence and some of the original broadcasting is represented online. Byens Radio resumed transmission as of 4 November 2013.
Finland
In Finland, most pirate radio stations operated in the 1970s and the early half of the 1980s, because
Yleisradio
Yleisradio Oy (Finnish, literally "General Radio Ltd." or "General Broadcast Ltd."; abbr. Yle ; sv, Rundradion Ab, italics=no), translated to English as the Finnish Broadcasting Company, is Finland's national public broadcasting company, founde ...
was the only legitimate broadcaster. In 1985, licenses were granted for local FM radio stations, which were able to offer a much wider variety of music, thus lessening the need for pirate radio stations. Since the end of the 1990s, FM piracy in Finland has all but died out.
France (history of pirate radio)
The first wave was a political movement based mainly within French territory. Most of these stations were short-lived. The first wave included Radio Verte, Radio Ivre, Radio Active and Radio Lorraine Coeur d'Acier. A few, such as
Radio Verte Fessenheim
Radio Dreyeckland is a radio station in Mulhouse, Alsace, France. Another station with the same name operates in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
Both stations are successors to Radio Verte Fessenheim which was started by opponents to the Fessenhe ...
became licensed stations.
[''Écoutez la vraie différence ! radio verte Fessenheim, radio S.O.S. emploi-Longwy et les autres'', published 1997 by ''la Pensée sauvage'', editor Claude Collin, ]
* 1978
In January 1978, the DST arrested eleven people accused of radio piracy. In May, the President of the Republic,
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing
Valéry René Marie Georges Giscard d'Estaing (, , ; 2 February 19262 December 2020), also known as Giscard or VGE, was a French politician who served as President of France from 1974 to 1981.
After serving as Minister of Finance under prime ...
asked the government to put an end to pirate radio stations. On 17 May, the Lecat law confirmed the monopoly of state radio stations and toughened the penalties for offenders.
* 1981-1983
The socialist opposition supports the fight of free radios for freedom of expression without promising the end of the monopoly. In 1981, after the election of
François Mitterrand
François Marie Adrien Maurice Mitterrand (26 October 19168 January 1996) was President of France, serving under that position from 1981 to 1995, the longest time in office in the history of France. As First Secretary of the Socialist Party, he ...
, the law of 29 July 1982 on audiovisual communication abolishes the state monopoly and authorizes free radios. In February 1983, 22 stations obtained authorization to broadcast in Paris.
From 1982, a High Authority for Audiovisual Communication was created and replaced in 1986 by the
National Commission for Communication and Liberties
The National Commission for Communication and Liberties (''Commission nationale de la communication et des libertés'' or ''CNCL'') was a TV and radio regulatory body set up in France in 1986 as the successor to the Haute Autorité de la communic ...
(CNCL). The frequency authorizations issued by the CNCL in 1987 are the subject of several scandals: several commercial stations to the detriment of free radios and non-commercial associative radios; but also the lack of transparency in the choice of frequencies. A small associative station, Radio Laser, which is one of the radio stations excluded, thus initiates a lawsuit against Radio Courtoisie for "active corruption" of the CNCL and the members of the CNCL are at the same time prosecuted for "confiscation". Weakened by these controversies, the CNCL was replaced in 1989 by the
Superior Council of the Audiovisual which obtains increased competences, a greater independence of action in order to regulate the allocation of frequencies, ensure the quality of transmissions and better legal support to apply these decisions.
Hungary (history of pirate radio)
1942–44
1956 , , and Csokonai Rádió
1991
Tilos Rádió
Tilos Rádió is a community, non-profit, listener supported radio station in Budapest, Hungary. History
Tilos Rádió was the first community radio station in Hungary, established as a pirate broadcaster in 1991. The station's programmers have ...
,
Szokol Rádió Szokol or Szokoll is a Hungarian-language surname. The word is the transliteration of the Slavic word "Sokol". The surname may refer to:
* Zsolt Szokol (born 1990), Hungarian football defender
* Carl Szokoll
Carl Szokoll (15 October 1915 – 25 ...
, Fiksz Rádió, , and Zöm Rádió
2020
RiseFM
Ireland (history of pirate radio)
*''See''
Irish pirate radio
Pirate radio in Ireland has had a long history, with hundreds of pirate radio stations having operated within the country.
Due to past lax enforcement of the rules, the lack of commercial radio until 1989, and the small physical size of the co ...
.
Italy
In early 70's some pirate radio started to broadcast using FM.
They were illegal till a decision of the supreme court in 1976 decided that every citizen has a right to broadcast on radio (and the government was supposed to be in charge of a new plan of frequency).
See
Radio Alice
Radio Alice was an Italian free radio broadcasting from Bologna at the end of the 1970s. It started transmitting on 9 February 1976 using an ex-military transmitter on a frequency of 100.6 MHz. The station founders were associated with the I ...
, linked to the
Autonomist
Autonomism, also known as autonomist Marxism is an anti-capitalist left-wing political and social movement and theory. As a theoretical system, it first emerged in Italy in the 1960s from workerism (). Later, post-Marxist and anarchist tendenci ...
movement.
Netherlands
(See also Belgium)
*1960–1974
::
Radio Veronica
Radio Veronica was an offshore radio station that began broadcasting in 1960, and broadcast offshore for over fourteen years. It was set up by independent radio, TV and household electrical retailers in the Netherlands to stimulate the sales ...
transmitted in Dutch on AM mediumwave (192 meter, 1562 kHz; later 538 meter, 557 kHz) from the
MV Borkum Riff
MV may refer to:
Businesses and organizations In transportation
* Motor vessel, a motorized ship; used as a prefix for ship names
* MV Agusta, a motorcycle manufacturer based in Cascina Costa, Italy
* Armenian International Airways (IATA code MV) ...
and after 1965 from the
MV Norderney
The MV Nordeney was from November, 1964 until 31 August 1974 the transmission ship for offshore radio station Radio Veronica.Website University GroningeYears of Veronica visited 29 June 2012
History
The Norderney was built in 1949 as the ''MV HH 2 ...
in international waters off the coast of
Scheveningen
Scheveningen is one of the eight districts of The Hague, Netherlands, as well as a subdistrict (''wijk'') of that city. Scheveningen is a modern seaside resort with a long, sandy beach, an esplanade, a pier, and a lighthouse. The beach is po ...
, and soon became the most popular radio station in the Netherlands. Broadcasts were targeted to the Netherlands only, transmitting power was deliberately kept moderate to avoid interference with international radio stations. Most broadcasts were recorded on shore in
Hilversum
Hilversum () is a city and municipality in the province of North Holland, Netherlands. Located in the heart of the Gooi, it is the largest urban centre in that area. It is surrounded by heathland, woods, meadows, lakes, and smaller towns. Hilvers ...
. The station operated from April 1960 until August 1974, when the Dutch ratification of the Strassbourg treaty came into effect, after which Radio Veronica—then called VOO—became part of the regular Dutch broadcasting system, but was unable to retain its popularity. Radio Veronica is now an independent radio station
*1964
::Radio Noordzee and TV Noordzee transmitted in Dutch from
REM Island
REM Island is a platform built in the Republic of Ireland and towed off the Dutch coast in 1964 as the pirate broadcasting home of ''Radio and TV Noordzee''. Both stations were dismantled by the Netherlands Armed Forces. It was 10 km off Noordw ...
, an artificial construction resembling an early offshore oil platform. It was built in the
Republic of Ireland
Ireland ( ga, Éire ), also known as the Republic of Ireland (), is a country in north-western Europe consisting of 26 of the 32 counties of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, on the eastern side of the island. A ...
and towed into a position off the coast of the Netherlands where it was assembled on site. The two stations were short lived and were forcibly closed by an air and sea attack by the
Dutch Armed Forces
The Netherlands Armed Forces ( nl, Nederlandse krijgsmacht) are the military services of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The core of the armed forces consists of the four service branches: the Royal Netherlands Navy (), the Royal Netherlands Ar ...
. However, the funds solicited from the project by the REM island project were later used to launch a legitimate and fully licensed station in the Netherlands.
*1970
::
Radio Noordzee Internationaal (RNI) broadcasting on AM, FM and international shortwave from the MV ''Mebo II'' which was originally anchored off the Netherlands. The ship moved for a time off the coast of south-eastern England where it was
jammed by a
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
transmitter. The vessel then returned to the Netherlands. The owners of this station were involved in the
Nigerian Civil War
The Nigerian Civil War (6 July 1967 – 15 January 1970), also known as the Nigerian–Biafran War or the Biafran War, was a civil war fought between Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra, a secessionist state which had declared its independence f ...
: (
Biafra
Biafra, officially the Republic of Biafra, was a partially recognised secessionist state in West Africa that declared independence from Nigeria and existed from 1967 until 1970. Its territory consisted of the predominantly Igbo-populated form ...
) and a complicated involvement with the sale of electronic equipment that featured in the trial of the men responsible for the
Pan Am Flight 103 Lockerbie bombing. The end came for the MV ''Mebo II'' when the owners sold their offshore station to
Libya
Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya bo ...
as a revolutionary radio station. In the end Libya blew the vessel up and sank it for target practice.
*1970
::Capital Radio aboard the MV ''King David''. No connection to the legal British commercial radio group of
the same name.
*1978
::
Radio Delmare
Radio Delmare was a project by enthusiasts in 1977 to restore a Dutch radio ship, about three years after Veronica and Radio North Sea International, RNI went off air. In May 1977 they bought MV "Aegir" and made it ready.
Preemptive raid
The f ...
aboard the MV ''Martina''. This vessel also took a generator to "Radio Caroline" then using the MV ''Mi Amigo''.
*1981
::Radio Paradijs made test broadcasts only from the MV ''Magda Maria (Lieve)'' which was anchored off the Netherlands before the station was forcibly closed.
*1984-1987
::
Radio Monique
Radio Monique was an offshore radio station broadcasting to the Netherlands and Belgium from the Radio Caroline ship, .
Originally intended to broadcast in 1981 from a new radio ship called MV ''Magda Maria'' alongside a station to be called Radio ...
aboard Radio Caroline's
MV Ross Revenge
MV ''Ross Revenge'' is a radio ship, the home of Radio Caroline, as well as having supported Radio Monique and various religious broadcasters. Funded by the Icelandic government, she was constructed in Bremerhaven in 1960 and served as an Ic ...
.
*1988-1989
::Radio 819 (originally Radio 558 prior to a frequency change) from the
MV Ross Revenge
MV ''Ross Revenge'' is a radio ship, the home of Radio Caroline, as well as having supported Radio Monique and various religious broadcasters. Funded by the Icelandic government, she was constructed in Bremerhaven in 1960 and served as an Ic ...
.
*1980–present
::There are still many Dutch pirate radio stations, mostly located in rural areas. It has been claimed that in 2011 approx 50% of all European Pirate Stations are located in the East-Netherlands. Especially the provinces of Overijssel, Friesland and Drenthe have a lot of pirate stations, as well as western Brabant. Most of the pirate radio stations air the so called "pirate music", traditional Dutch folk music combined with classic English, German and Polka. These can be found particularly 1611 to 1700 kHz (This is called the X-Band.) Like many other European countries another hotspot is the 48 meter-band on
Shortwave radio
Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave (SW) radio frequencies. There is no official definition of the band, but the range always includes all of the high frequency band (HF), which extends from 3 to 30 MHz (100 to 10 me ...
. The frequency is 6200-6500 kHz. Some can be found in the American part of the band (6900-7000) but is rare. There are about ~40
Pirate radio
Pirate radio or a pirate radio station is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid license.
In some cases, radio stations are considered legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially w ...
stations based in the Netherlands alone.
Poland
In the 1980s, there were hundreds of short broadcasts of pre-recorded programs prepared and aired by a clandestine network of activists who called themselves Solidarity Radio (
Radio Solidarność
Radio is the technology of signaling and telecommunication, communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device ...
). Those programs, sometimes preceded by a leaflet campaign announcing an up-coming broadcast, were part of the broad-based Solidarity (
Solidarność
Solidarity ( pl, „Solidarność”, ), full name Independent Self-Governing Trade Union "Solidarity" (, abbreviated ''NSZZ „Solidarność”'' ), is a Polish trade union founded in August 1980 at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland. Subseq ...
) workers, pro-democracy movement, which eventually succeeded in overcoming communism in Poland. Many Solidarity Radio organizers served time in prison for their activities.
Sweden
*Early 1950s to 31 May 1952; Black Peter was run by the brothers John and Gunnar Figaro from their home in Lomsjö, a small village in southern
Lappland. The transmission was suspected to transmit information from espionage resulting in a major hunt
*1958
::Skånes Radio Mercur, later renamed to Radio Syd from the MV "''Cheeta"'' and later the MV "''Cheeta II"'' which was also used at various times by TV Syd and for a time Radio Caroline South while the ship was anchored off South-east England. See
Radio Syd webpagesRadio Syd was shut down in January 1966 and the owner, Britt Wadner, moved to Gambia where she started a land based Radio Syd in May 1970 using the antenna from "''Cheeta II"''
*1961
::
Radio Nord
Radio Nord was a Swedish offshore commercial station that operated briefly from 8 March 1961 to 30 June 1962 from a ship anchored in international waters of the Baltic Sea off Stockholm, Sweden. While the station was dubbed as a pirate radio sta ...
broadcasting in Swedish from the MV ''Bon Jour'' (later renamed ''Magda Maria'' and ''Mi Amigo''). This station was the behind-the-scenes creation of American
Top 40
In the music industry, the Top 40 is the current, 40 most-popular songs in a particular genre. It is the best-selling or most frequently broadcast popular music. Record charts have traditionally consisted of a total of 40 songs. "Top 40" or " con ...
broadcasting pioneer
Gordon McLendon
Gordon Barton McLendon (June 8, 1921 – September 14, 1986Texas State Historical AssociationMcClendon, Gordon Barton/ref>) was a radio broadcaster. Nicknamed "the Maverick of Radio", McLendon is widely credited for perfecting, during the 1950s ...
and
Clint Murchison
Clinton Williams Murchison Jr. (September 12, 1923 – March 30, 1987) was a businessman and founder of the Dallas Cowboys football team. A son of Clint Murchison Sr., who made his first fortune in oil exploration and became notorious for exploi ...
, owner of the
Dallas Cowboys
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) East divisi ...
football
Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly c ...
team, both from
Dallas
Dallas () is the List of municipalities in Texas, third largest city in Texas and the largest city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the List of metropolitan statistical areas, fourth-largest metropolitan area in the United States at 7.5 ...
,
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
. See
Pictures of the ship, transmitter & personnelan
::As the MV ''Mi Amigo'', this radio ship would later be used to transmit under the names of: Radio 199; Radio Veronica; Radio Atlantis; Radio Seagull, Radio Mi Amigo and Radio Caroline.
United Kingdom
From international waters
*1928
::Ceto—The ''Ceto'' was a steam yacht reportedly renamed "Broadcasting Yacht" and fitted out for radio broadcasting purposes in 1928. Starting from off the coast of Dundee, Scotland, 'Daily Mail Radio/Radio Daily Mail' (reports vary) broadcast easy listening music to various points around the British coast as it cruised around the nation's coastline. The sole sponsors of this voyage were Britain's ''
Daily Mail
The ''Daily Mail'' is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper and news websitePeter Wilb"Paul Dacre of the Daily Mail: The man who hates liberal Britain", ''New Statesman'', 19 December 2013 (online version: 2 January 2014) publish ...
'', ''Evening News'', and ''Sunday Dispatch'' newspapers, and the intent was not so much to set up an offshore station but rather to publicise the papers. The brain behind this publicity stunt was Valentine Smith, the Daily Mail's publicity officer.
*1960
::CNBC—(
Commercial Neutral Broadcasting Company
The Commercial Neutral Broadcasting Company (CNBC) was an English language pirate radio station which hired airtime for a few hours each day from the Dutch pirate Radio Veronica in 1960–1961. Programmes were pre-recorded at Veronica's Amsterdam ...
) made test broadcasts in English from the MV ''Borkum Riff'' anchored off the Netherlands and also the home of the Dutch station
Radio Veronica
Radio Veronica was an offshore radio station that began broadcasting in 1960, and broadcast offshore for over fourteen years. It was set up by independent radio, TV and household electrical retailers in the Netherlands to stimulate the sales ...
. The target audience was in south-eastern England, but due to the low power and distance the programs were not successful and they were terminated after a short period of time. However, the experiment gave rise to two other ventures which were planned for vessels anchored off the coast of south-eastern England.
::The first was GBLN which was also known as the Voice of Slough and the primary geographical target area of the transmissions. This vessel was to be based aboard the MV ''Ellen''. What made this station notable was the fact that U.S.
evangelist
Evangelist may refer to:
Religion
* Four Evangelists, the authors of the canonical Christian Gospels
* Evangelism, publicly preaching the Gospel with the intention of spreading the teachings of Jesus Christ
* Evangelist (Anglican Church), a c ...
Herbert W. Armstrong
Herbert W. Armstrong (July 31, 1892 – January 16, 1986) was an American evangelism, evangelist who founded the Worldwide Church of God (WCG). An early pioneer of radio evangelism, radio and television evangelism, Armstrong preached what he c ...
, who financed by his daily paid broadcasts many of the successful offshore stations which followed, believed in the project to the extent that his broadcast called ''
The World Tomorrow'' was listed in the radio log of his worldwide magazine (''
The Plain Truth
''The Plain Truth'' was a free-of-charge monthly magazine, first published in 1934 by Herbert W. Armstrong, founder of The Radio Church of God, which he later named The Worldwide Church of God (WCG). The magazine, subtitled as ''The Plain Truth: ...
''), as being heard at 8 p.m. daily at 306 metres in the
medium wave
Medium wave (MW) is the part of the medium frequency (MF) radio band used mainly for AM radio broadcasting. The spectrum provides about 120 channels with more limited sound quality than FM stations on the FM broadcast band. During the daytime ...
: (
AM).
::Almost at the same time a spin-off venture from GBLN was created by GBOK which intended to broadcast from a former lightship known as the ''Lady Dixon''. Although the mainstream press reported on both stations at the time, neither venture came on the air.
*1964
::
Radio Caroline
Radio Caroline is a British radio station founded in 1964 by Ronan O'Rahilly and Alan Crawford initially to circumvent the record companies' control of popular music broadcasting in the United Kingdom and the BBC's radio broadcasting monopoly. ...
began broadcasting on 28 March from aboard the MV ''Caroline'' (formerly MV ''Fredericia'') anchored off south-eastern England, later moved to anchorage off
Isle of Man
)
, anthem = "O Land of Our Birth"
, image = Isle of Man by Sentinel-2.jpg
, image_map = Europe-Isle_of_Man.svg
, mapsize =
, map_alt = Location of the Isle of Man in Europe
, map_caption = Location of the Isle of Man (green)
in Europe ...
. The first voices from Radio Caroline included
Simon Dee
Cyril Nicholas Henty-Dodd (28 July 1935 – 29 August 2009), better known by his stage name Simon Dee, was a British television interviewer and radio disc jockey who hosted a twice-weekly BBC TV chat show, ''Dee Time'', in the late 1960s. Aft ...
,
Carl Conway Carl may refer to:
*Carl, Georgia, city in USA
*Carl, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
*Carl (name), includes info about the name, variations of the name, and a list of people with the name
*Carl², a TV series
* "Carl", an episode of tel ...
,
John Junkin
John Francis Junkin (29 January 1930 – 7 March 2006) was an English actor and scriptwriter who had a long career in radio, television and film, specialising in comedy.
Early life
Born in Ealing, Middlesex, the son of a policeman, he and hi ...
and
Chris Moore. Some of the first programmes were recorded on land and taken out to the ship to be played as live.
::Radio Atlanta began broadcasting on 12 May from aboard the MV ''Mi Amigo'' from an anchorage close to Radio Caroline. The Mi Amigo had been previously used by
Radio Nord
Radio Nord was a Swedish offshore commercial station that operated briefly from 8 March 1961 to 30 June 1962 from a ship anchored in international waters of the Baltic Sea off Stockholm, Sweden. While the station was dubbed as a pirate radio sta ...
to broadcast to Sweden. On 2 July 1964, Radio Caroline and Radio Atlanta agreed upon forming the
Caroline Network
Radio Caroline is a British radio station founded in 1964 by Ronan O'Rahilly and Alan Crawford initially to circumvent the record companies' control of popular music broadcasting in the United Kingdom and the BBC's radio broadcasting monopoly. ...
while retaining independent owners of each station. As a result of this agreement Radio Caroline on board the MV ''Caroline'' sailed north, while the MV ''Mi Amigo'' remained at her original anchorage off south-eastern England using the callsign Radio Caroline South. Upon its arrival the now renamed Radio Caroline North broadcast to the north of England, the
Isle of Man
)
, anthem = "O Land of Our Birth"
, image = Isle of Man by Sentinel-2.jpg
, image_map = Europe-Isle_of_Man.svg
, mapsize =
, map_alt = Location of the Isle of Man in Europe
, map_caption = Location of the Isle of Man (green)
in Europe ...
, Ireland and a large part of Scotland.
::
Radio London began broadcasting from a former US minesweeper renamed MV ''
Galaxy
A galaxy is a system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, dark matter, bound together by gravity. The word is derived from the Greek ' (), literally 'milky', a reference to the Milky Way galaxy that contains the Solar System. ...
'' anchored in British territorial waters off South-east England. Following a warning from Radio Caroline, the station moved to a new location almost alongside Radio Caroline. "Big L", as it was known, was the most successful UK commercial radio station from within months of its start right up to its closedown in 1967, although by this time Radio Caroline was regaining lost ground.
::The station gained its 'Wonderful' appendage because it used a set of custom-recorded
PAMS jingles made in
Dallas
Dallas () is the List of municipalities in Texas, third largest city in Texas and the largest city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the List of metropolitan statistical areas, fourth-largest metropolitan area in the United States at 7.5 ...
,
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
. The Radio London format was later copied by the BBC to create Radio One and
The Who
The Who are an English rock band formed in London in 1964. Their classic lineup consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist and singer John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered ...
incorporated the jingles into their album ''
The Who Sell Out
''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the m ...
''. Big L, as the station was fondly called, followed a similar format to
KLIF
The Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency ( no, Klima- og forurensningsdirektoratet, Klif), named Norwegian Pollution Control Authority ( no, Statens forurensningstilsyn), SFT) until 2010, was a Norwegian government agency from 1974 to 2013 when ...
in
Dallas
Dallas () is the List of municipalities in Texas, third largest city in Texas and the largest city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the List of metropolitan statistical areas, fourth-largest metropolitan area in the United States at 7.5 ...
where the station had been financed by car dealers and oil men who were friends and
business
Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or Trade, buying and selling Product (business), products (such as goods and Service (economics), services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for pr ...
associates of
Don Pierson
Donald Grey Pierson (October 11, 1925 – March 30, 1996) was a businessman and civic leader in Eastland, Texas. He founded the British pirate stations Wonderful Radio London, Swinging Radio England and Britain Radio during the 1960s. He a ...
of
Eastland
SS ''Eastland'' was a passenger ship based in Chicago and used for tours. On 24 July 1915, the ship rolled over onto its side while tied to a dock in the Chicago River. In total, 844 passengers and crew were killed in what was the largest loss ...
,
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
.
::Radio Invicta broadcasting from
Red Sands Fort, an abandoned
WWII
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
British Army fortress on a sandbar in the
Thames Estuary
The Thames Estuary is where the River Thames meets the waters of the North Sea, in the south-east of Great Britain.
Limits
An estuary can be defined according to different criteria (e.g. tidal, geographical, navigational or in terms of salini ...
. The station did not last and it returned to the air as KING Radio, which in turn gave way to Radio 390 after a considerable financial investment had been made in the company and broadcasting site.
::Radio 390 was unique in that it had a good quality signal and transmitted a wide variety of programs from easy music to serials, children's programs, business programs, religious programs, plus news and weather bulletins. An episode of Patrick McGoohan's "Danger Man" (known in the U.S. as "Secret Agent Man") called "The Not-So-Jolly Roger" was filmed on Red Sands Fort in early 1966 when "Radio 390" was broadcasting (shut down a year later). The episode was broadcast 4 July of the same year.
::Radio Sutch broadcasting from Shivering Sands in 1964, a sandbar which was the location of another complex of towers (originally seven, though only five remained connected and one had capsized) off South-east England, which had also been a WWII British Army Fort left unstaffed after the war. Radio Sutch was named after its founder, the British
rock artist Screaming Lord Sutch
Screaming Lord Sutch (10 November 1940 – 16 June 1999), who had his name legally changed from David Edward Sutch, was an English musician and perennial parliamentary candidate. He was the founder of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party an ...
who took his style and a part of his name from the American artist
Screamin' Jay Hawkins
Jalacy J. "Screamin' Jay" Hawkins (July 18, 1929 – February 12, 2000) was an American singer-songwriter, musician, actor, film producer, and boxer. Famed chiefly for his powerful, operatic vocal delivery and wildly theatrical performances of s ...
. In September of that year Sutch sold the station to his musical manager Reg Calvert, who renamed it Radio City and set about upgrading its equipment.
*1965
::Radio Essex broadcast from a
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
barge which had been originally fitted with a sea fort and then towed to and sunk upon Knock John sandbar. This station was created by
Roy Bates
Patrick Roy Bates (29 August 1921 – 9 October 2012), also known as Prince Roy of Sealand, was a British pirate radio broadcaster and micronationalist, who founded the Principality of Sealand.Strauss, Erwin. ''How to Start Your Own Country'', ...
, who later made claims that he had created the
Principality of Sealand
The Principality of Sealand () is an unrecognized micronation that claims HM Fort Roughs (also known as Roughs Tower), an offshore platform in the North Sea approximately off the coast of Suffolk, as its territory. Roughs Tower is a Maunsell ...
on yet another disused Royal Navy sunken barge. Radio Essex discovered that its location was within British territorial waters and following a court summons the station attempted to reinvent itself in 1966 as BBMS—Britain's Better Music Station. This low-power station mainly covered parts of the counties of
Essex
Essex () is a county in the East of England. One of the home counties, it borders Suffolk and Cambridgeshire to the north, the North Sea to the east, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent across the estuary of the River Thames to the south, and G ...
,
Kent
Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north-west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south-west, and Essex to the north across the estuary of the River Thames; it faces ...
and
East Anglia
East Anglia is an area in the East of England, often defined as including the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire. The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Angles, a people whose name originated in Anglia, in ...
.
::
Radio Scotland
Radio Scotland was an offshore pirate radio station broadcasting on 1241 kHz mediumwave (242 metres), created by Tommy Shields in 1965. The station was on the former lightship L.V. ''Comet'', which had been fitted out as a radio station in ...
(also known as
Radio Scotland and Ireland
Radio Scotland was an offshore pirate radio station broadcasting on 1241 kHz mediumwave (242 metres), created by Tommy Shields in 1965. The station was on the former lightship L.V. ''Comet'', which had been fitted out as a radio station in ...
) at various locations along the coast of Scotland and Northern Ireland from the former lightship ''Comet''. The station was the creation of
Tommy Shields
Thomas Charles Shields (born August 14, 1964) is an American professional baseball coach and former infielder. Shields was an infielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1992 to 1993 for the Baltimore Orioles and Chicago Cubs. In 2021, Shields ...
.
*1966
::The Radio City Death:
Reginald Calvert
Pearce Reginald Hartley CalvertNational Probate Calendar, 1966 (1928 – 21 June 1966) was an English artist manager, born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England.
He was the manager of The Fortunes, Pinkerton's Assorted Colours, Screaming Lor ...
, the manager of
Screaming Lord Sutch
Screaming Lord Sutch (10 November 1940 – 16 June 1999), who had his name legally changed from David Edward Sutch, was an English musician and perennial parliamentary candidate. He was the founder of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party an ...
and the owner of
Radio City, was shot dead at the home of
Major Oliver Smedley in 1966 following falling out over a joint venture financing arrangement between Radio City and
Radio Caroline
Radio Caroline is a British radio station founded in 1964 by Ronan O'Rahilly and Alan Crawford initially to circumvent the record companies' control of popular music broadcasting in the United Kingdom and the BBC's radio broadcasting monopoly. ...
. Calvert's former business associates had boarded his station, removed the transmitter crystals and put the station off the air.
::Due in part to the sensational death of Reg Calvert and lurid tales depicting real
swashbuckling piracy, the British government were finally able to bring in legislation to make offshore broadcasting a part of British criminal law in the United Kingdom. Radio City stopped broadcasting after Mrs Calvert appeared in court charged under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1947. The station was said to be broadcasting within the 3-mile (6 km) limit. Radio City closed down shortly after Mrs Calvert lost the case.
::SRE—
Swinging Radio England
Swinging Radio England ("SRE") was a top 40 offshore commercial station billed as the "''World's Most Powerful''" that operated from 3 May 1966 to 13 November 1966 from a ship in the North Sea, four and a half miles off Frinton-on-Sea, Essex, E ...
aboard the MV Laissez Faire anchored off south-eastern England. This station was also created and financed by Don Pierson and his business associates in
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
.
::SRE followed a fast-paced "All-
American
American(s) may refer to:
* American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America"
** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America
** American ancestry, pe ...
"
top 40
In the music industry, the Top 40 is the current, 40 most-popular songs in a particular genre. It is the best-selling or most frequently broadcast popular music. Record charts have traditionally consisted of a total of 40 songs. "Top 40" or " con ...
radio format
A radio format or programming format (not to be confused with broadcast programming) describes the overall content broadcast on a radio station. The radio format emerged mainly in the United States in the 1950s, at a time when Radio broadcasting, ...
similar to KBOX in Dallas, Texas, but the American
disc jockey
A disc jockey, more commonly abbreviated as DJ, is a person who plays recorded music for an audience. Types of DJs include Radio personality, radio DJs (who host programs on music radio stations), club DJs (who work at a nightclub or music f ...
s had also grafted on a hybrid '
boss jocks' formula which had been employed by
RKO
RKO Radio Pictures Inc., commonly known as RKO Pictures or simply RKO, was an American film production and distribution company, one of the "Big Five" film studios of Hollywood's Golden Age. The business was formed after the Keith-Albee-Orpheu ...
stations in the USA, although the hybrid was far more forceful and pounding than the original. The PAMS jingles used by SRE were the resung versions of those first used by
WABC in
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
. SRE arrived around the time of the death of Reg Calvert, owner of Radio City and the political drive to bring in legislation to shut the offshore stations down. These and other unfortunate development brought about the rapid demise of SRE.
::At first the Texas owners wanted to rename the station ''Radio Holland'' and broadcast in Dutch to the Netherlands. Their plans went ahead after the name Radio Dolfijn had been selected instead. However, it was not long before the station changed its name yet again to Radio 227 as a hybrid of a hybrid SRE in Dutch. This station closed in 1967 just prior to the
Marine Broadcasting Offences Act
The Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967 (c. 41), shortened to Marine Broadcasting Offences Act or "Marine offences Act", became law in the United Kingdom at midnight on Monday 14 August 1967. It was subsequently amended by the Wireles ...
becoming law.
::Britain Radio which called itself the ''Hallmark of Quality'', was a
beautiful music
Beautiful music (sometimes abbreviated as BM, B/EZ or BM/EZ for "beautiful music/easy listening") is a mostly instrumental music format that was prominent in North American radio from the late 1950s through the 1980s. Easy listening, elevator musi ...
format station in 1966. Its jingles also came from PAMS in Dallas and it shared something in common with SRE. Both stations were located in studios built in a container which had been lowered into the hold of the MV ''Laissez Faire''. This station was also created and originally financed by friends and associates of Don Pierson. However, Britain Radio did not last and it was replaced by Radio 355 managed by
Ted Allbeury
Theodore Edward le Bouthillier Allbeury (24 October 1917 – 4 December 2005) was a British author of espionage fiction. He served as an intelligence officer in the Special Operations Executive between 1940 and 1947, reaching the rank of lieuten ...
who had successfully created Radio 390. Broadcasting two stations from the same ship created technical problems that the stations never managed to resolve, so their coverage was always less than they hoped for.
::Radio Tower and TV Tower attempted broadcasting in 1966 from another
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
barge which had also been fitted with a sea fort and then towed to and sunk upon Sunk Head sandbar. Only the radio station made test broadcasts and the TV station is alleged to have made a single, but unconfirmed test transmission.
::
Radio 270
Radio 270 was a pirate radio station serving Yorkshire and the North East of England from 1966 to 1967. It broadcast from a converted Dutch lugger called ''Oceaan 7'' positioned in international waters off Scarborough, North Yorkshire followed b ...
aboard the MV ''Oceaan VII'' anchored off the
Yorkshire
Yorkshire ( ; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a Historic counties of England, historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other Eng ...
coast of Northeast England in 1966.
::The comedy film ''
The Boat That Rocked
''The Boat That Rocked'' (titled ''Pirate Radio'' in North America) is a 2009 British comedy film written and directed by Richard Curtis about pirate radio in the United Kingdom during the 1960s. The film has an ensemble cast consisting of Phi ...
'' is a fictionalised and unrealistic view of offshore pirate radio, set in 1966.
*1967
::Following the introduction of the
Marine Broadcasting Offences Act
The Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967 (c. 41), shortened to Marine Broadcasting Offences Act or "Marine offences Act", became law in the United Kingdom at midnight on Monday 14 August 1967. It was subsequently amended by the Wireles ...
(Marine & Etc. Broadcasting Offences Act) on 14 August 1967 at midnight, the only two offshore radio stations left on the British airwaves were broadcasting from the two Caroline Network stations which had enjoyed a semi-legal status with offices located in London and Liverpool. After the passage of the MBOA, the two stations soon began announcing themselves individually as Radio Caroline International.
*1970
::The two ship stations of Radio Caroline International eventually ran out of money in early 1968 and a salvage company towed them away for unpaid bills. But when a new and very powerful offshore radio station aboard the MV ''Mebo II'' anchored off the coast of South-east England in time for the British
General Election
A general election is a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation, state, or territory's primary legislative body, and are different from by-elections ( ...
, it suddenly switched its name from Radio Northsea International—(RNI), to Radio Caroline and began to lobby for the introduction of licensed commercial radio in the United Kingdom. As a result of this development the British Government resorted to
Jamming the station with a succession of increasingly powerful transmitters on the same frequency. After the election Radio Caroline fell silent once more and the radio ship moved back to the Netherlands where it became Radio Northsea International once again. Radio Caroline returned in Autumn 1972 originally off Holland, but 'came home' when it dropped anchor again off England in August 1974, from the MV Mi Amigo. In 1973 Caroline had solved the problem of broadcasting two frequencies simultaneously, although it was not until 1976-8 that this was done for any length time.
*1983
::In 1980, the MV ''Mi Amigo'' sank in a storm. The MV ''Caroline'' had been previously scrapped. In 1983 Radio Caroline returned to the airwaves from a larger ship called the MV
Ross Revenge
MV ''Ross Revenge'' is a radio ship, the home of Radio Caroline, as well as having supported Radio Monique and various religious broadcasters. Funded by the Icelandic government, she was constructed in Bremerhaven in 1960 and served as an I ...
, a super-trawler used by Ross Fisheries until the
Cod Wars
The Cod Wars ( is, Þorskastríðin; also known as , ; german: Kabeljaukriege) were a series of 20th-century confrontations between the United Kingdom (with aid from West Germany) and Iceland about fishing rights in the North Atlantic. Each o ...
with
Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
.
::The radio ship anchored off South-east England and became home to: Radio Caroline in English with part time services known as Caroline Overdrive playing album music programs and Caroline Viewpoint airing sponsored religious programs. Also on board was a Dutch service on another AM frequency (using the same technique as had been used on the ''Mi Amigo''), which was managed under contract to Dutch organizations and known variously as: Radio Monique, Radio 558 and Radio 819.
::On shortwave a third station operated a sponsored religious broadcasting station under the name of WMR—World Mission Radio with an over the air mailing address in
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
, United States. Because of its American address, this station triggered international complaints to the US
FCC
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that regulates communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable across the United States. The FCC maintains jurisdiction ...
during 1988 and 1989. The FCC was at that time engaged in legal casework over Radio Newyork International, whose founder had previously been aboard the MV ''Ross Revenge'' helping to set up an earlier shortwave radio channel. In defence of its case for ''Radio Newyork International'' lawyers had submitted briefs to the US District Court citing the examples of Radio Caroline and the Voice of Peace as offshore broadcasting stations that had been left alone unchallenged by governmental interference. On 19 August 1989, Dutch authorities with British assistance, raided the MV ''Ross Revenge'' and shut down all transmissions.
*1984
::
Laser 558
Laser 558 was an offshore pirate radio station launched in May 1984 using disc jockeys from the US. It broadcast from the Panama-registered ship MV Communicator in international waters in the North Sea. Within months the station had a large audi ...
broadcast from the MV ''Communicator'' and within a matter of months it gained an audience of millions. Lack of advertising due to UK laws starved the station off the air. However, it did return briefly in 1986 as Laser Hot Hits but the station did not last for the same reasons as before. The legacy of the original Laser 558 was in its impact upon British broadcasting at the time, because it forced licensed stations to take note of the success of this short-lived offshore station and to attempt to incorporate its ideas and some of its personnel into their own programming.
*1990
::On 5 November 1990, the last "pirate" broadcast was made from the MV ''
Ross Revenge
MV ''Ross Revenge'' is a radio ship, the home of Radio Caroline, as well as having supported Radio Monique and various religious broadcasters. Funded by the Icelandic government, she was constructed in Bremerhaven in 1960 and served as an I ...
'' and
Radio Caroline
Radio Caroline is a British radio station founded in 1964 by Ronan O'Rahilly and Alan Crawford initially to circumvent the record companies' control of popular music broadcasting in the United Kingdom and the BBC's radio broadcasting monopoly. ...
in international waters; bringing to a close the story of Offshore Radio for the United Kingdom. After remaining silent for over a year, the vessel ran aground on the
Goodwin Sands
Goodwin Sands is a sandbank at the southern end of the North Sea lying off the Deal coast in Kent, England. The area consists of a layer of approximately depth of fine sand resting on an Upper Chalk platform belonging to the same geologi ...
during a storm. Shortly after, the "Ross" was towed into port at
Dover
Dover () is a town and major ferry port in Kent, South East England. It faces France across the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part of the English Channel at from Cap Gris Nez in France. It lies south-east of Canterbury and east of Maidstone ...
, England on 22 November 1991. Details of subsequent, legal, operations of Radio Caroline can be found under its own
article
Article often refers to:
* Article (grammar), a grammatical element used to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness
* Article (publishing), a piece of nonfictional prose that is an independent part of a publication
Article may also refer to:
G ...
.
Many household names that later broadcast from the BBC started their careers with the offshore broadcasters, including :
Tony Blackburn
Anthony Kenneth Blackburn (born 29 January 1943) is an English disc jockey, singer and TV presenter. He first achieved fame broadcasting on the pirate stations Radio Caroline and Radio London in the 1960s, before joining the BBC, on the BBC L ...
,
Dave Cash,
Kenny Everett
Kenny Everett (born Maurice James Christopher Cole; 25 December 1944 – 4 April 1995) was an English comedian, radio disc jockey and television presenter. After spells on pirate radio and Radio Luxembourg in the mid-1960s, he was one of the fi ...
,
John Peel
John Robert Parker Ravenscroft (30 August 1939 – 25 October 2004), known professionally as John Peel, was an English disc jockey (DJ) and radio presenter. He was the longest-serving of the original BBC Radio 1 DJs, broadcasting regularly fr ...
(briefly),
Emperor Rosko
Michael Joseph Pasternak (born 26 December 1942), known by his stage name Emperor Rosko, is an American presenter of rock music programmes, most widely known for his shows on Radio Caroline and BBC Radio 1 in the UK in the 1960s and early 1970s.
...
,
Keith Skues
Richard Keith Skues MBE, AE (born 4 March 1939) is a British radio personality. His career spans over 60 years.
Biography
Skues was born in Timperley, Cheshire. His broadcasting career began on the British Forces Network in Cologne, Germany, in 1 ...
,
Ed Stewart
Edward Stewart Mainwaring (23 April 1941 – 9 January 2016), known as Ed "Stewpot" Stewart, was an English radio broadcaster and TV presenter. He was principally known for his work as a DJ on BBC Radio 1 (particularly the Saturday morning ''Ju ...
,
Dave Lee Travis
David Patrick Griffin (born 25 May 1945), known professionally as Dave Lee Travis, is an English disc jockey, radio presenter and television presenter.
Travis began his broadcasting career on the pirate radio station Radio Caroline in 1965. He ...
and
Johnnie Walker
Johnnie Walker is a brand of Scotch whisky now owned by Diageo that originated in the Scottish burgh of Kilmarnock in East Ayrshire. The brand was first established by grocer John Walker. It is the most widely distributed brand of blended ...
.
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pirate Radio In Europe
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
Radio in Europe