A spruce is a
tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
of the genus ''Picea'' (), a genus of about 35 species of
conifer
Conifers are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single ...
ous
evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...
trees in the family
Pinaceae
The Pinaceae, or pine family, are conifer trees or shrubs, including many of the well-known conifers of commercial importance such as Cedrus, cedars, firs, Tsuga, hemlocks, larches, pines and spruces. The family is included in the order Pinales, ...
, found in the northern
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
and
boreal (
taiga
Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruce ...
) regions of the Earth. ''Picea'' is the sole genus in the
subfamily
In biological classification, a subfamily (Latin: ', plural ') is an auxiliary (intermediate) taxonomic rank, next below family but more inclusive than genus. Standard nomenclature rules end subfamily botanical names with "-oideae", and zoologi ...
Piceoideae. Spruces are large trees, from about 20 to 60 m (about 60–200 ft) tall when mature, and have
whorled branches and
conical form. They can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by their needles (leaves), which are four-sided and attached singly to small persistent peg-like structures (
pulvini
A pulvinus (pl. ''pulvini'') is a joint-like thickening at the base of a plant leaf or leaflet that facilitates growth-independent movement. Pulvini are common, for example, in members of the bean family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and the prayer plant ...
or
sterigmata
In biology, a sterigma (pl. sterigmata) is a small supporting structure.
It commonly refers to an extension of the basidium (the spore-bearing cells) consisting of a basal filamentous part and a slender projection which carries a spore at the ti ...
) on the branches, and by their
cones
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex.
A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines conn ...
(without any protruding
bract
In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s), which hang downwards after they are pollinated. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs. In other similar genera, the branches are fairly smooth.
Spruce are used as
food plants by the
larva
A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
The ...
e of some
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
(moth and butterfly) species, such as the
eastern spruce budworm. They are also used by the larvae of
gall adelgid
The gall adelgid (''Adelges cooleyi'') is an adelgid species that produces galls in spruce trees. They infect the new buds of native spruce trees in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in the spring. They also attack blue spruce to a lesser d ...
s (''Adelges'' species).
In the mountains of western
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, scientists have found a
Norway spruce
''Picea abies'', the Norway spruce or European spruce, is a species of spruce native to Northern, Central and Eastern Europe.
It has branchlets that typically hang downwards, and the largest cones of any spruce, 9–17 cm long. It is very close ...
, nicknamed
Old Tjikko
Old Tjikko is a 9,550 year-old Norway spruce, located on Fulufjället Mountain of Dalarna province in Sweden. Old Tjikko originally gained fame as the "world's oldest tree." Old Tjikko is, however, a clonal tree that has regenerated new trun ...
, which by reproducing through
layering
Layering has evolved as a common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species in natural environments. Layering is also utilized by horticulturists to propagate desirable plants.
Natural layering typically occurs when a branch touches ...
, has reached an age of 9,550 years and is claimed to be the world's oldest known living tree.
Description
Morphology
![Picea glauca twig Denali NP AK](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Picea_glauca_twig_Denali_NP_AK.jpg)
Determining that a tree is a spruce is not difficult;
evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...
needles that are more or less quadrangled, and especially the
pulvinus
A pulvinus (pl. ''pulvini'') is a joint-like thickening at the base of a plant leaf or leaflet that facilitates growth-independent movement. Pulvini are common, for example, in members of the bean family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and the prayer plant ...
, give it away. Beyond that, determination can become more difficult. Intensive sampling in the Smithers/Hazelton/Houston area of British Columbia showed Douglas (1975),
[Douglas, G.W. (1975). Spruce (''Picea'') hybridization in west-central British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Forest Science, Smithers BC, unpublished report, cited by Coates et al. 1994. (Cited by Coates et al. 1994, orig. not seen)] according to Coates et al. (1994),
[Coates, K.D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A.J. (1994). Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia. Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement For. Resour. Devel., Victoria BC, FRDA Rep. 220. 182 p.] that cone scale morphology was the feature most useful in differentiating species of spruce; the length, width, length: width ratio, the length of free scale (the distance from the imprint of the seed wing to the tip of the scale), and the percentage free scale (length of free scale as a percentage of the total length of the scale) were most useful in this regard. Daubenmire (1974),
after range-wide sampling, had already recognized the importance of the 2 latter characters. Taylor (1959)
[ (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).] had noted that the most obvious morphological difference between typical ''Picea glauca'' and typical ''P. engelmannii'' was the cone scale, and Horton (1956,1959)
[Horton, K.W. (1956). A taxonomic and ecological study of ''Picea glauca'' and ''Picea engelmannii'' in North America. Diploma thesis, Oxford Univ., U.K. 103 p.][Horton, K.W. (1959). Characteristics of subalpine spruce in Alberta. Can. Dep. Northern Affairs National Resour., For. Branch, For. Res. Div., Ottawa ON, Tech. Note 76. 20 p.] found that the most useful diagnostic features of the 2 spruces are in the cone; differences occur in the flower, shoot and needle, "but those in the cone are most easily assessed" (Horton 1959).
Coupé et al. (1982)
[Coupé, R.; Ray, C.A.; Comeau, A.; Ketcheson, M.V.; Annas, R.M. (1982). A guide to some common plants of the Skeena area, British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Res. Branch, Victoria BC.] recommended that cone scale characters be based on samples taken from the midsection of each of 10 cones from each of 5 trees in the population of interest.
Without cones,
morphological differentiation among spruce species and their hybrids is more difficult. Species classification for seeds collected from spruce stands in which introgressive hybridization between white and Sitka spruces (''P. sitchensis'') may have occurred is important for determining appropriate cultural regimens in the nursery. If, for instance, white spruce grown at container nurseries in southwestern British Columbia are not given an extended photoperiod, leader growth ceases early in the first growing season, and seedlings do not reach the minimum height specifications.
[Arnott, J.T. (1974). "Germination and seedling establishment". pp. 55–66 in Cayford, J.H. (Ed.). ''Direct Seeding Symposium'', Timmins ON, Sept. 1973, Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa ON, Proc., Publ. 1339.] But, if an extended photoperiod is provided for Sitka spruce, seedlings become unacceptably tall by the end of the first growing season .
Species classification of seedlots collected in areas where hybridization of white and Sitka spruces has been reported has depended on (i) easily measured cone scale characters of seed trees, especially free scale length, (ii) visual judgements of morphological characters, e.g., growth rhythm, shoot and root weight, and needle serration, or (iii) some combination of (i) and (ii) (Yeh and Arnott 1986).
Useful to a degree, these classification procedures have important limitations; genetic composition of the seeds produced by a stand is determined by both the seed trees and the pollen parents, and species classification of hybrid seedlots and estimates of their level of introgression on the basis of seed-tree characteristics can be unreliable when hybrid seedlots vary in their introgressiveness in consequence of spatial and temporal variations in contributions from the pollen parent (Yeh and Arnott 1986).
Secondly, morphological characters are markedly influenced by ontogenetic and environmental influences, so that to discern spruce hybrid seedlot composition with accuracy, hybrid seedlots must differ substantially in morphology from both parent species. Yeh and Arnott (1986)
pointed out the difficulties of estimating accurately the degree of introgression between white and Sitka spruces; introgression may have occurred at low levels, and/or hybrid seed lots may vary in their degree of introgression in consequence of repeated backcrossing with parental species.
Growth
Spruce seedlings are most susceptible immediately following
germination
Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, fer ...
, and remain highly susceptible through to the following spring. More than half of spruce seedling mortality probably occurs during the first growing season and is also very high during the first winter,
[Alexander, R.R. (1987). Ecology, silviculture, and management of the Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA, For. Serv., Washington DC, Agric. Handb. 659. 144 p.] when seedlings are subjected to freezing damage, frost heaving and erosion, as well as smothering by litter and snow-pressed vegetation. Seedlings that germinate late in the growing season are particularly vulnerable because they are tiny and have not had time to
harden off fully.
Mortality rates generally decrease sharply thereafter, but losses often remain high for some years. "Establishment" is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development. Criteria vary, of course, but Noble and Ronco (1978),
[Noble, D.L.; Ronco, F. (1978). Seedfall and establishment of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in clearcut openings in Colorado. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Res. Pap. RM-200. 12 p.] for instance, considered that seedlings 4 to 5 years old, or 8 cm to 10 cm tall, warranted the designation "established", since only unusual factors such as
snow mold
Snow mold is a type of fungus and a turf disease that damages or kills grass after snow melts, typically in late winter. Its damage is usually concentrated in circles three to twelve inches in diameter, although yards may have many of these circles ...
,
fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction Product (chemistry), products.
At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition ...
,
trampling, or predation would then impair regeneration success. Eis (1967)
suggested that in dry habitats on either mineral soil or litter seedbeds a 3-year-old seedling may be considered established; in moist habitats, seedlings may need 4 or 5 years to become established on mineral soil, possibly longer on litter seedbeds.
Growth remains very slow for several to many years. Three years after
shelterwood felling in subalpine Alberta, dominant
regeneration
Regeneration may refer to:
Science and technology
* Regeneration (biology), the ability to recreate lost or damaged cells, tissues, organs and limbs
* Regeneration (ecology), the ability of ecosystems to regenerate biomass, using photosynthesis
...
averaged 5.5 cm in height in
scarified blocks, and 7.3 cm in non-scarified blocks (Day 1970),
[Day, M.W.; Rudolph, V.J. (1970). Development of a white spruce plantation. Michigan State Univ., Agric. Exp. Sta., East Lansing MI, Res. Pap. 111. 4 p.] possibly reflecting diminished fertility with the removal of the A horizon.
Taxonomy
Classification
DNA analyses have shown that traditional classifications based on the
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
* Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
* Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...
of needle and
cone
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex.
A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines con ...
are artificial.
A 2006 study found that ''
P. breweriana'' had a
basal position, followed by ''
P. sitchensis'',
and the other species were further divided into three
clade
A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...
s, suggesting that ''Picea'' originated in North America. The oldest record of spruce has been found in the fossil record from the Early Cretaceous around 136 million years ago.
Species
,
Plants of the World Online
Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It was launched in March 2017 with the ultimate aim being "to enable users to access information on all the world's known seed-bearing plants by ...
accepted 37 species.
The grouping is based on Ran et al. (2006).
*Basal species:
** ''
Picea breweriana
''Picea breweriana'', known as Brewer spruce, Brewer's weeping spruce, or weeping spruce, is a species of spruce native to western North America, where it is one of the rarest on the continent. The specific epithet ''breweriana'' is in honor of ...
'' – Brewer's spruce,
Klamath Mountains
The Klamath Mountains are a rugged and lightly populated mountain range in northwestern California and southwestern Oregon in the western United States. As a mountain system within both the greater Pacific Coast Ranges and the California Coast R ...
, North America; local
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
** ''
Picea sitchensis
''Picea sitchensis'', the Sitka spruce, is a large, coniferous, evergreen tree growing to almost tall, with a trunk diameter at breast height that can exceed 5 m (16 ft). It is by far the largest species of spruce and the fifth-larg ...
'' –
Sitka
russian: Ситка
, native_name_lang = tli
, settlement_type = Consolidated city-borough
, image_skyline = File:Sitka 84 Elev 135.jpg
, image_caption = Downtown Sitka in 1984
, image_size ...
spruce, Pacific coast of North America; the largest species, to 95 m tall; important in
forestry
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Th ...
*Clade I (Northern and western
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, in
boreal forests
Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces ...
or high mountains)
** ''
Picea engelmannii
''Picea engelmannii'', with the common names Engelmann spruce, white spruce, mountain spruce, and silver spruce, is a species of spruce native to western North America. It is mostly a high-altitude mountain tree but also appears in watered cany ...
'' – Engelmann spruce, western North American mountains; important in forestry
** ''
Picea glauca
''Picea glauca'', the white spruce, is a species of spruce native to the northern temperate and boreal forests in North America. ''Picea glauca'' is native from central Alaska all through the east, across southern/central Canada to the Avalon Pe ...
'', syn. ''Picea laxa'' – white spruce, northern North America; important in forestry
*Clade II (throughout Asia, mostly in mountainous areas, a few isolated populations in higher elevations of
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
,)
** ''
Picea brachytyla'' – Sargent's spruce, southwest
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
** ''
Picea chihuahuana
''Picea chihuahuana'', the Chihuahua spruce, is a medium-sized evergreen tree growing to 25–35 m tall, and with a trunk diameter of up to 1 m. It is native to northwest Mexico, where it occurs in 25 small populations in the Sierra Madre Occide ...
'' – Chihuahua spruce, northwest Mexico (rare)
** ''
Picea farreri
''Picea farreri'' is a species of conifer in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is known by the common name Farrer's spruce.[Burma
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...]
, southwest
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
(mountains)
** ''
Picea likiangensis'' – Likiang spruce, southwest China
** ''
Picea martinezii'' – Martinez spruce, northeast Mexico (very rare, endangered)
** ''
Picea maximowiczii
''Picea maximowiczii'', the Japanese bush spruce, is a species of conifer in the pine family. It is endemic to Japan; its range is limited to Akaishi Mountains, Okuchichibu Mountains and the Yatsugatake Mountains on Honshu
, historically cal ...
'' – Maximowicz spruce,
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
(rare, mountains)
** ''
Picea morrisonicola
''Picea morrisonicola'', the Taiwan spruce, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It is found only in Taiwan, and it is the only species of spruce in Taiwan. It is the southernmost species of spruce in the world, being spread near the T ...
'' – Taiwan spruce,
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
(high mountains)
** ''
Picea neoveitchii
''Picea neoveitchii'' () is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It is found only in China. It is threatened by habitat loss.
''Picea neoveitchii'' is an endemic spruce species of central China. Several scattered communities and indiv ...
'' – Veitch's spruce, northwest China (rare, endangered)
** ''
Picea orientalis
''Picea orientalis'', commonly known as the Oriental spruce or Caucasian spruce, is a species of spruce native to the Caucasus and adjacent northeast Turkey.
Description
It is a large pinophyta, coniferous evergreen tree growing to 30–45 ...
'' – Caucasian spruce or Oriental spruce,
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
, northeast
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
** ''
Picea polita'', syn. ''Picea torano'' – tiger-tail spruce, Japan
** ''
Picea purpurea
''Picea purpurea'', also known as purple cone spruce and purple-coned spruce is a species of spruce found only in China. It is likely to be a hybrid species
Hybrid speciation is a form of speciation where hybridization between two different ...
'' – purple cone spruce, western China
** ''
Picea schrenkiana'' – Schrenk's spruce, mountains of central Asia
** ''
Picea smithiana
''Picea smithiana'' is a species of evergreen tree in the family Pinaceae family It is referred to by the common names morinda spruce and West Himalayan spruce, and is a spruce native to the western Himalaya and adjacent mountains, from northeas ...
'' – morinda spruce, western
Himalaya
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
, eastern
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, northern and northwest
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
** ''
Picea spinulosa
''Picea spinulosa'', the Sikkim spruce, is a spruce native to the eastern Himalaya, in India (Sikkim), Nepal and Bhutan. It grows at altitudes of 2,400-3,700 m in mixed coniferous forests.
It is a large evergreen tree growing to 40–55 m tall ...
'' – Sikkim spruce, northeast India (
Sikkim
Sikkim (; ) is a state in Northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Province No. 1 of Nepal in the west and West Bengal in the south. Sikkim is also close to the Siligur ...
), eastern
Himalaya
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
** ''
Picea wilsonii'' – Wilson's spruce, western China
*Clade III (Europe, Asia, and North America, mostly in boreal forests or mountainous areas)
** ''
Picea abies
''Picea abies'', the Norway spruce or European spruce, is a species of spruce native to Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe.
It has branchlets that typically hang downwards, and the largest cones of any spruce, ...
'' – Norway spruce, Europe; important in forestry, the original
Christmas tree
A Christmas tree is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer, such as a spruce, pine or fir, or an artificial tree of similar appearance, associated with the celebration of Christmas. The custom was further developed in early modern ...
** ''
Picea alcoquiana'' – ("''P. bicolor''") Alcock's spruce, central Japan (mountains)
** ''
Picea asperata'' – dragon spruce, western China; several varieties
** ''
Picea crassifolia
''Picea crassifolia'', the Qinghai spruce, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It is found only in China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries an ...
'' – Qinghai spruce, China
** ''
Picea glehnii
''Picea glehnii'', the Sakhalin spruce or Glehn's spruce, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It was named after a Russian botanist, taxonomist, Sakhalin and Amur river regions explorer, geographer and hydrographer Peter von Glehn (18 ...
'' – Glehn's spruce, northern Japan,
Sakhalin
Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, r=Sakhalín, p=səxɐˈlʲin; ja, 樺太 ''Karafuto''; zh, c=, p=Kùyèdǎo, s=库页岛, t=庫頁島; Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ, ''Sahaliyan''; Orok: Бугата на̄, ''Bugata nā''; Nivkh: ...
** ''
Picea jezoensis
''Picea jezoensis'' (sometimes misspelled ''Picea yezoensis''), the dark-bark spruce, Ezo spruce, Yezo spruce, or Jezo spruce, is a large evergreen tree growing to 30–50 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 2 m. It is native to northeast ...
'' – Jezo spruce, northeast Asia,
Kamchatka
The Kamchatka Peninsula (russian: полуостров Камчатка, Poluostrov Kamchatka, ) is a peninsula in the Russian Far East, with an area of about . The Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk make up the peninsula's eastern and wes ...
south to Japan
** ''
Picea koraiensis
''Picea koraiensis'', the Korean spruce, is a species of spruce.
It is a medium-sized evergreen tree growing to 30 m tall, and with a trunk diameter of up to 0.8 m. The shoots are orange-brown, glabrous or with scattered pubescence. The leaves ...
'' – Korean spruce,
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, northeast China
** ''
Picea koyamae
''Picea koyamae'' (Koyama's spruce; Japanese: ヤツガタケトウヒ or やつがたけとうひ ''yatsugatake-touhi'') is a rare spruce, endemic to the Akaishi Mountains and Yatsugatake Mountains in central Honshu, Japan. It is an evergreen ...
'' – Koyama's spruce, Japan (mountains)
** ''
Picea mariana
''Picea mariana'', the black spruce, is a North American species of spruce tree in the pine family. It is widespread across Canada, found in all 10 provinces and all 3 territories. It is the official tree of the province of Newfoundland and Labr ...
'' – black spruce, northern North America
** ''
Picea meyeri'' – Meyer's spruce, northern China (from Inner Mongolia to Gansu)
** ''
Picea obovata'' – Siberian spruce, north
Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion#Europe, subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, ...
,
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
; often treated as a variant of ''P. abies'' (and hybridises with it), but has distinct cones
** ''
Picea omorika'' – Serbian spruce,
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
and
Bosnia
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and He ...
; local
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
; important in horticulture
** ''
Picea pungens
The blue spruce (''Picea pungens''), also commonly known as green spruce, Colorado spruce, or Colorado blue spruce, is a species of spruce tree. It is native to North America, and is found in USDA growing zones 1 through 7. It is found naturally ...
'' – blue spruce or Colorado spruce,
Rocky Mountains
The Rocky Mountains, also known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range and the largest mountain system in North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch in straight-line distance from the northernmost part of western Canada, to New Mexico in ...
, North America; important in horticulture
** ''
Picea retroflexa
''Picea retroflexa'', the Tapao Shan spruce, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae that is endemic to China, growing in West Sichuan, Kangding, Jiuzhaigou (Zheduo Shan), Qinghai, and Ban Ma Xian. Its limited habitat is threatened by hab ...
'' – green dragon spruce, China
** ''
Picea rubens
''Picea rubens'', commonly known as red spruce, is a species of spruce native to eastern North America, ranging from eastern Quebec and Nova Scotia, west to the Adirondack Mountains and south through New England along the Appalachians to western ...
'' – red spruce, northeastern North America; important in forestry, known as
Adirondack in musical-instrument making
*Others
** ''
Picea aurantiaca''
Mast.
** ''
Picea austropanlanica
A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' (), a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Earth. ''Picea'' is the sole genus in the subfa ...
''
Silba
** ''
Picea linzhiensis''
(W.C.Cheng & L.K.Fu) Rushforth
*Hybrids
**
''Picea'' × ''albertiana'' S.Br.
**
''Picea'' × ''fennica'' (Regel) Kom.
**
''Picea'' × ''lutzii'' Little
**
''Picea'' × notha'' Rehder
There is also an extinct species identified from fossil evidence, ''
Picea critchfieldii
''Picea critchfieldii'' (common name: Critchfield's spruce) is an extinct species of spruce tree formerly present on the landscape of North America, where it was once widely distributed throughout the southeastern United States. Plant macrofossil ...
'' which was widespread in the Southeastern United States in the
Late Quaternary
The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together ...
.
Etymology
![Kuhmo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Kuhmo.vaakuna.svg)
The
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles
Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, w ...
phrase ("from
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
", a region now part of Poland) sounds to English ears like ''spruce''. ''Spruce'', ' (1412), and ' (1378) seem to have been generic terms for commodities brought to England by
Hanseatic
The Hanseatic League (; gml, Hanse, , ; german: label=German language, Modern German, Deutsche Hanse) was a Middle Ages, medieval commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Central Europe, Central and Norther ...
merchants (especially beer, boards, wooden chests and leather), and the tree thus was believed to be particular to Prussia, which for a time was figurative in England as a land of luxuries. It can be argued that the word is actually derived from the
Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intelligib ...
term , meaning literally Prussia.
Ecology
Diseases
''Sirococcus'' blight (Deuteromycotina, Coelomtcetes)
The closely related species ''Sirococcus conigenus'' and ''Sirococcus piceicola'' cause shoot blight and seedling mortality of Pinophyta, conifers in North America, Europe, and North Africa. Twig blight damage to seedlings of white and Picea rubens, red spruces in a nursery near Asheville, North Carolina, was reported by Graves (1914).
Hosts include White spruce, white, Picea mariana, black, Picea engelmannii, Engelmann, Picea abies, Norway, and Picea rubens, red spruces, although they are not the plants most commonly damaged. ''Sirococcus'' blight of spruces in nurseries show up randomly in seedlings to which the fungus was transmitted in infested seed. First-year seedlings are often killed, and larger plants may become too deformed for planting. Outbreaks involving < 30% of spruce seedlings in seedbeds have been traced to seed lots in which only 0.1% to 3% of seeds were infested. Seed infestation has in turn been traced to the colonization of spruce cones by ''S. conigenus'' in forests of the western interior. Infection develops readily if conidia are deposited on succulent plant parts that remain wet for at least 24 hours at 10 °C to 25 °C. Longer periods of wetness favour increasingly severe disease. Twig tips killed during growth the previous year show a characteristic crook.
''Rhizosphaera kalkhoffi'' needle cast
''Rhizosphaera'' infects white spruce, blue spruce (''Picea pungens''), and Norway spruces throughout Ontario, causing severe defoliation and sometimes killing small, stressed trees. White spruce is intermediately susceptible. Dead needles show rows of black fruiting bodies. Infection usually begins on lower branches. On white spruce, infected needles are usually retained on the tree into the following summer. The fungicide Chlorthalonil is registered for controlling this needle cast (Davis 1997).
[Davis, C. (24 September 1997) "Tree talk". ''The Sault Star''. Marie, Ontario. p. B2.]
''Valsa kunzei'' branch and stem canker
A branch and stem canker associated with the fungus ''Valsa kunzei'' Fr. var. ''picea'' was reported on white and Norway spruces in Ontario (Jorgensen and Cafley 1961)
and Quebec (Ouellette and Bard 1962).
In Ontario, only trees of low vigour were affected, but in Quebec vigorous trees were also infected.
Predators
![Spruce in the park of Peterhof](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Spruce_in_the_park_of_Peterhof.jpg)
Small mammals ingest Pinophyta, conifer seeds, and also consume seedlings. Cage feeding of deer mice (''Peromyscus maniculatus'') and red-backed vole (''Myodes gapperi'') showed a daily maximum seed consumption of 2000 white spruce seeds and of 1000 seeds of Pinus contorta, lodgepole pine, with the 2 species of mice consuming equal amounts of seed, but showing a preference for the pine over the spruce (Wagg 1963).
The short-tailed meadow vole (''Microtus pennsylvanicus'' Ord) voraciously ate all available white spruce and lodgepole pine seedlings, pulling them out of the ground and holding them between their front feet until the whole seedling had been consumed. Wagg (1963)
attributed damage observed to the bark and cambium at ground level of small white spruce seedlings over several seasons to meadow voles.
Once shed, seeds contribute to the diet of small mammals, e.g., Peromyscus, deer mice, red-backed voles, Montane vole, mountain voles (''Microtus montanus''), and chipmunks (''Eutamias minimus''). The magnitude of the loss is difficult to determine, and studies with and without seed protection have yielded conflicting results. In western Montana, for example, spruce seedling success was little better on protected than on unprotected seed spots (Schopmeyer and Helmers 1947),
[Schopmeyer, C.S.; Helmers, A.E. 1947. Seeding as a means of reforestation in the northern Rocky Mountain Region. USDA For. Serv., Washington DC, Circular 772. 30 p.] but in British Columbia spruce regeneration depended on protection from rodents (Smith 1955).
[Smith, J.H.G. 1955 [1956 acc to E3999 bib]. Some factors affecting reproduction of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir. British Columbia Dep. Lands For., For. Serv., Victoria BC, Tech. Publ. 43 p. [Coates et al. 1994, Nienstaedt and Teich 1972]]
An important albeit indirect biotic constraint on spruce establishment is the depredation of seed by squirrels. As much as 90% of a cone crop has been harvested by red squirrels (Zasada et al. 1978).
[Zasada, J.C.; Foote, M.J.; Deneke, F.J.; Parkerson, R.H. 1978. Case history of an excellent white spruce cone and seed crop in interior Alaska: cone and seed production, germination and seedling survival. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific NW For. Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-65. 53 p.] Deer mice, voles, chipmunks, and shrews can consume large quantities of seed; 1 mouse can eat 2000 seeds per night.
Repeated applications of half a million seeds/ha failed to produce the 750 trees/ha sought by Northwest Pulp and Power, Ltd., near Hinton, Alberta (Radvanyi 1972),
[Radvanyi, A. 1972. Small mammals and regeneration of white spruce in western Alberta. p. 21–23 ''in'' McMinn, R.G. (Ed.). White Spruce: Ecology of a Northern Resource. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-40.] but no doubt left a lot of well-fed small mammals. Foraging by squirrels for winter buds (Rowe 1952)
[Rowe, J.S. 1952. Squirrel damage to white spruce. Can. Dep. Resour. Devel., For. Branch, For. Res. Div., Ottawa ON, Silv. Leafl. 61. 2 p.] has not been reported in relation to young plantations, but Wagg (1963)
noted that at Hinton AB, American red squirrel, red squirrels were observed cutting the lateral and terminal twigs and feeding on the vegetative and flower buds of white spruce.
American red squirrel, Red squirrels in Alaska have harvested as much as 90% of a cone crop (Zasada et al. 1978);
their ''modus operandi'' is to cut off great numbers of cones with great expedition early in the fall, and then "spend the rest of the fall shelling out the seeds". In Manitoba, Rowe (1952)
ascribed widespread severing of branch tips 5 cm to 10 cm long on white spruce ranging "from sapling to veteran size" to squirrels foraging for winter buds, cone failure having excluded the more usual food source. The damage has not been reported in relation to small trees, outplants or otherwise.
Porcupines (''Erethizon dorsatum'' L.) may damage spruce (Nienstaedt 1957),
[Nienstaedt, H. 1957. Silvical characteristics of white spruce (''Picea glauca''). USDA, For. Serv., Lake States For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul MN, Pap. 55. 24 p.] but prefer red pine.
Bark-stripping of white spruce by black bear (''Euarctos americanus perniger'') is locally important in Alaska (Lutz 1951),
but the bark of white spruce is not attacked by field mice (''Microtus pennsylvanicus'' Ord),
even in years of heavy infestation.
Pests
The eastern spruce budworm (''Choristoneura fumiferana'') is a major pest of spruce trees in forests throughout Canada and the eastern United States.
Two of the main host plants are Picea mariana, black spruce and white spruce.
[Balch, R.E.; Webb, F.E.; Morris, R.F. (1954)]
Results of spraying against spruce budworm in New Brunswick
Can. Dep. Agric., For. Biol. Div., Ottawa ON, Bi-mo. Progr. Rep. 10(1). Population levels oscillate, sometimes reaching extreme outbreak levels that can cause extreme defoliation of and damage to spruce trees. To reduce destruction, there are multiple methods of control in place, including pesticides.
Horntails, or Wood Wasps, use this tree for egg laying and the larvae will live in the outer inch of the tree under the bark.
Spruce beetles (''Dendroctonus rufipennis'') have destroyed swathes of spruce forest in western North America from Alaska to Wyoming.
Uses
Timber
![Wood picea abies](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Wood_picea_abies.jpg)
Spruce is useful as a building wood, commonly referred to by several different names including North American timber, SPF (spruce, pine, fir) and whitewood (the collective name for spruce wood). Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from general construction work and crates to highly specialised uses in wooden aircraft. The Wright brothers' first aircraft, the ''Wright Flyer, Flyer'', was built of spruce.
Because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only (indoor drywall framing, for example). Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to.
Pulpwood
Spruce is one of the most important Pulpwood, woods for paper uses, as it has long wood fibres which bind together to make strong paper. The fibres are thin walled and collapse to thin bands upon drying. Spruces are commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily Bleaching of wood pulp, bleached. Together with northern pines, northern spruces are commonly used to make NBSK. Spruces are Plantation, cultivated over vast areas as pulpwood.
Food and medicine
![SpruceEssentialOil](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/SpruceEssentialOil.png)
The fresh shoots of many spruces are a natural source of vitamin C. Captain Cook made alcoholic sugar-based spruce beer during his sea voyages in order to prevent scurvy in his crew. The leaves and branches, or the essential oils, can be used to brew spruce beer.
In Finland, young spruce buds are sometimes used as a spice, or boiled with sugar to create spruce bud syrup. In survival situations spruce needles can be directly ingested or boiled into a tea. This replaces large amounts of vitamin C. Also, water is stored in a spruce's needles, providing an alternative means of hydration . Spruce can be used as a preventive measure for scurvy in an environment where meat is the only prominent food source .
Tonewood
Spruce is the standard material used in soundboards for many musical instruments, including guitars, mandolins, cellos, violins, and the sound board (music), soundboard at the heart of a piano and the harp.
Wood used for this purpose is referred to as tonewood.
Spruce, along with Thuja plicata, cedar, is often used for the sound board (music), soundboard/top of an acoustic guitar. The main types of spruce used for this purpose are Sitka, Engelmann, Adirondack and European spruces.
Other uses
The resin was used in the manufacture of pitch (resin), pitch in the past (before the use of petrochemicals); the scientific name ''Picea'' derives from Latin "pitch pine" (referring to Scots pine), from , an adjective from "pitch".
Indigenous people of the Americas, Native Americans in
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
use the thin, pliable roots of some species for weaving baskets and for sewing together pieces of birch bark for canoes. See also Kiidk'yaas for an unusual golden Sitka Spruce sacred to the Haida people.
Spruces are popular ornamental trees in horticulture, admired for their evergreen, symmetrical narrow-conic growth habit. For the same reason, some (particularly ''Picea abies'' and ''P. omorika'') are also extensively used as
Christmas tree
A Christmas tree is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer, such as a spruce, pine or fir, or an artificial tree of similar appearance, associated with the celebration of Christmas. The custom was further developed in early modern ...
s, with artificial Christmas trees often being produced in their likenesses.
Spruce branches are also used at Aintree racecourse, Liverpool, to build several of the fences on the Grand National course. Spruce wood is also used to make sculptures.
Genome
The nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of British Columbia interior spruce have been sequenced. The large (20 Gbp) nuclear genome and associated gene annotations of interior spruce (genotype PG29) were published in 2013 and 2015.
References
External links
*theplantlist.org
''Picea'' (Spruce)*conifers.org
Gymnosperm Database - ''Picea''*efloras.org
''Picea''*pinetum.org / Arboretum de Villardebelle: Cones of selected species of ''Picea''
{{Authority control
Picea,