![03-10 Mnium2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/03-10_Mnium2.jpg)
Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal
structure
A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as ...
of
plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...
s. Originally it included
plant morphology
Phytomorphology is the study of the morphology (biology), physical form and external structure of plants.Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th ed., page 9. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). . This is usually cons ...
, the description of the physical form and external structure of plants, but since the mid-20th century plant anatomy has been considered a separate field referring only to internal plant structure. Plant anatomy is now frequently investigated at the
cellular level, and often involves the sectioning of
tissues and
microscopy
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of micr ...
.
Structural divisions
![Plant Anatomy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Plant_Anatomy.svg)
Some studies of plant anatomy use a systems approach, organized on the basis of the plant's activities, such as nutrient transport, flowering, pollination, embryogenesis or seed development. Others are more classically divided into the following structural categories:
: Flower anatomy, including study of the
Calyx,
Corolla,
Androecium
The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filam ...
, and
Gynoecium
Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
:
Leaf anatomy
A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...
, including study of the
Epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that comprise the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the amount of water rele ...
,
stomata
In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of gas exchange. The pore is bor ...
and
Palisade cell
Palisade cells are plant cells located on the leaves, right below the epidermis and cuticle that is the outermost layer of the leaf. In simpler terms, they are known as leaf cells. Palisade means "stake" in latin, they are vertically elongated an ...
s
: Stem anatomy, including
Stem structure and
vascular tissue
Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There ...
s,
buds
In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately. Buds may be specia ...
and
shoot apex
: Fruit/Seed anatomy, including structure of the
Ovule
In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the ''integument'', forming its outer layer, the ''nucellus'' (or remnant of the megasporangium), and the fe ...
,
Seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...
,
Pericarp
Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits, multiple fruits, and simple fruits. Aggre ...
and
Accessory fruit
An accessory fruit is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the floral ovary but from some adjacent tissue exterior to the carpel.Esau, K. 1977. ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Accessory fruits are u ...
: Wood anatomy, including structure of the
Bark,
Cork
Cork or CORK may refer to:
Materials
* Cork (material), an impermeable buoyant plant product
** Cork (plug), a cylindrical or conical object used to seal a container
***Wine cork
Places Ireland
* Cork (city)
** Metropolitan Cork, also known as G ...
,
Xylem
Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, the other being phloem. The basic function of xylem is to transport water from roots to stems and leaves, but it also transports nutrients. The word ''xylem'' is derived from ...
,
Phloem
Phloem (, ) is the living biological tissue, tissue in vascular plants that transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and known as ''photosynthates'', in particular the sugar sucrose, to the rest of the plant. This tran ...
,
Vascular cambium
The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees, gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular plants. It produces secondary xyle ...
,
Heartwood and sapwood and
branch collar
A branch collar is the "shoulder" between the branch and trunk of woody plants; the inflammation formed at the base of the branch is caused by annually overlapping trunk tissue. The shape of the branch collar is due to two separate growth patter ...
: Root anatomy, including structure of the
Root
In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...
,
root tip,
endodermis
The endodermis is the central, innermost layer of cortex in land plants. It is a cylinder of compact living cells, the radial walls of which are impregnated with hydrophobic substances (Casparian strip) to restrict apoplastic flow of water to th ...
History
About 300 BC
Theophrastus
Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routledge ...
wrote a number of plant treatises, only two of which survive, ''
Enquiry into Plants
Theophrastus's ''Enquiry into Plants'' or ''Historia Plantarum'' ( grc-gre, Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία, ''Peri phyton historia'') was, along with his mentor Aristotle's ''History of Animals'', Pliny the Elder's '' Natural History'' a ...
'' (Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία), and ''On the Causes of Plants'' (Περὶ φυτῶν αἰτιῶν). He developed concepts of plant morphology and classification, which did not withstand the scientific scrutiny of the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
.
A Swiss physician and botanist,
Gaspard Bauhin
Gaspard Bauhin or Caspar Bauhin ( la, Casparus Bauhinus; 17 January 1560 – 5 December 1624), was a Swiss botanist whose ''Pinax theatri botanici'' (1623) described thousands of plants and classified them in a manner that draws comparisons to t ...
, introduced
binomial nomenclature
In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...
into plant
taxonomy
Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification.
A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...
. He published ''Pinax theatri botanici'' in 1596, which was the first to use this convention for naming of species. His criteria for classification included natural relationships, or 'affinities', which in many cases were structural.
It was in the late 1600s that plant anatomy became refined into a modern science. Italian doctor and microscopist,
Marcello Malpighi
Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the "Founder of microscopical anatomy, histology & Father of physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name is borne by several phy ...
, was one of the two founders of plant anatomy. In 1671 he published his ''Anatomia Plantarum'', the first major advance in plant physiogamy since
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
. The other founder was the British doctor
Nehemiah Grew
Nehemiah Grew (26 September 164125 March 1712) was an English plant anatomist and physiologist, known as the "Father of Plant Anatomy".
Biography
Grew was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607–1688), Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Micha ...
. He published ''An Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants'' in 1672 and ''The Anatomy of Plants'' in 1682. Grew is credited with the recognition of plant cells, although he called them 'vesicles' and 'bladders'. He correctly identified and described the sexual organs of plants (flowers) and their parts.
In the eighteenth century,
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
established taxonomy based on structure, and his early work was with plant anatomy. While the exact structural level which is to be considered to be scientifically valid for comparison and differentiation has changed with the growth of knowledge, the basic principles were established by Linnaeus. He published his master work, ''Species Plantarum'' in 1753.
In 1802, French botanist
Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel
Charles-François Brisseau de Mirbel (27 March 1776 – 12 September 1854) was a French botanist and politician. He was a founder of the science of plant cytology.
A native Parisian, at the age of twenty, he became an assistant-naturalist with ...
, published ''Traité d'anatomie et de physiologie végétale'' (''Treatise on Plant Anatomy and Physiology'') establishing the beginnings of the science of plant
cytology
Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and ...
.
In 1812,
Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer published ''Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen'', describing microscopic studies of plant tissues.
In 1813 a Swiss botanist,
Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame) de Candolle (, , ; 4 February 17789 September 1841) was a Swiss botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at a herbarium. Within a couple of years de Candol ...
, published ''Théorie élémentaire de la botanique'', in which he argued that plant anatomy, not physiology, ought to be the sole basis for plant classification. Using a scientific basis, he established structural criteria for defining and separating plant genera.
In 1830,
Franz Meyen
Franz Julius Ferdinand Meyen (28 June 1804 – 2 September 1840) was a Prussian physician and botanist.
Meyen was born in Tilsit, East Prussia. In 1830 he wrote ''Phytotomie'', the first major study of plant anatomy. Between 1830 and 1832, he too ...
published ''Phytotomie'', the first comprehensive review of plant anatomy.
In 1838 German botanist
Matthias Jakob Schleiden
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (; 5 April 1804 – 23 June 1881) was a German botanist and co-founder of cell theory, along with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow.
Career
Matthias Jakob Schleiden was born in Hamburg. on 5 April 1804. His father was ...
, published ''Contributions to Phytogenesis'', stating, "the lower plants all consist of one cell, while the higher plants are composed of (many) individual cells" thus confirming and continuing Mirbel's work.
A German-Polish botanist,
Eduard Strasburger
Eduard Adolf Strasburger (1 February 1844 – 18 May 1912) was a Polish-German professor and one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century. He discovered mitosis in plants.
Life
Eduard Strasburger was born in Warsaw, Congress Poland, the ...
, described the mitotic process in plant cells and further demonstrated that new cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other pre-existing nuclei. His ''Studien über Protoplasma'' was published in 1876.
Gottlieb Haberlandt
Gottlieb Haberlandt (28 November 1854 – 30 January 1945) was an Austrian botanist. He was the son of European 'soybean' pioneer Professor Friedrich J. Haberlandt. His son Ludwig Haberlandt was an early reproductive physiologist now given credit ...
, a German botanist, studied plant physiology and classified plant tissue based upon function. On this basis, in 1884 he published ''Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie'' (''Physiological Plant Anatomy'') in which he described twelve types of tissue systems (absorptive, mechanical, photosynthetic, etc.).
![Nehemiah Grew](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Nehemiah_Grew.png)
British paleobotanists
Dunkinfield Henry Scott
Dr Dukinfield Henry Scott FRS HFRSE LLD (28 November 1854 – 29 January 1934) was a British botanist.
Biography
Scott was born in London on 28 November 1854, the fifth and youngest son of architect Sir George Gilbert Scott and his wife Caro ...
and
William Crawford Williamson described the structures of fossilized plants at the end of the nineteenth century. Scott's ''Studies in Fossil Botany'' was published in 1900.
Following
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended fr ...
's ''Origin of Species'' a Canadian botanist,
Edward Charles Jeffrey, who was studying the comparative anatomy and phylogeny of different
vascular plant
Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes () or collectively Tracheophyta (), form a large group of land plants ( accepted known species) that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They al ...
groups, applied the theory to plants using the form and structure of plants to establish a number of evolutionary lines. He published his ''The Anatomy of Woody Plants'' in 1917.
The growth of comparative plant anatomy was spearheaded by British botanist
Agnes Arber
Agnes Robertson Arber FRS (23 February 1879 – 22 March 1960) was a British plant morphologist and anatomist, historian of botany and philosopher of biology. She was born in London but lived most of her life in Cambridge, including the las ...
. She published ''Water Plants: A Study of Aquatic Angiosperms'' in 1920, ''Monocotyledons: A Morphological Study'' in 1925, and ''The Gramineae: A Study of Cereal, Bamboo and Grass'' in 1934.
Following
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
,
Katherine Esau
Katherine Esau (3 April 1898 – 4 June 1997) was a German-American botanist who received the National Medal of Science for her work on plant anatomy.
Personal life and education
Esau was born on 3 April 1898 in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire ...
published, ''Plant Anatomy'' (1953), which became the definitive textbook on plant structure in North American universities and elsewhere, it was still in print as of 2006.
She followed up with her ''Anatomy of seed plants'' in 1960.
See also
*
Plant morphology
Phytomorphology is the study of the morphology (biology), physical form and external structure of plants.Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th ed., page 9. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). . This is usually cons ...
*
Plant physiology
Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology (structure of plants), plant ecology (interactions with the environment), phytochemistry (bi ...
*
Anatomy
Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its ...
References
Further reading
General
* Crang, R.C.; Lyons-Sobaski, S.; Wise, R.R. (2018) ''Plant Anatomy: A Concept-Based Approach to the Study of Seed Plants''. Springer, New York, 725 pp.
* Eames, Arthur Johnson; MacDaniels, Laurence H. (1947). ''An Introduction to Plant Anatomy'' 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York
link(1st ed., 1925
link.
* Esau, Katherine (1965). ''Plant Anatomy'' 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.
* Meicenheimer, R. ''History of Plant Anatomy''. Miami University
Specialized
* Cutler, D. F.; Gregory, M.; Rudall, P. (eds.) (1960-2014). ''Anatomy of the Monocotyledons''. 10 vols. Oxford University Press.
* Goffinet, B.; Buck, W. R.; Shaw, J. (2008). Morphology, anatomy, and classification of the Bryophyta. In: Goffinet, B.; Shaw, J. (eds.). ''Bryophyte Biology'', 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–138 (1st ed., 2000
link.
* Jeffrey, E. C. (1917). ''The anatomy of woody plants''. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press
link
* Metcalfe, C.R.; Chalk, L. (1957). ''Anatomy of the Dicotyledons: Leaves, stem and wood in relation to taxonomy, with notes on economic uses''. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1500 pp.
link(2nd ed., 1979-1998, 4 vols.).
* Schoute, J. C. (1938). Anatomy. In: Verdoorn, F. (ed.). ''Manual of Pteridology''. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. pp. 65–104
link
* Schweingruber, F. H.; Börner, A.; Schulze, E. (2011-2013). ''Atlas of Stem Anatomy in Herbs, Shrubs and Trees''. Vol. 1, 2011
link Vol. 2, 2013
link Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
External links
*
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20070704063752/http://utc.usu.edu/factsheets/CarexFSF/glossary.htm Botanical Visual GlossaryPlant anatomy glossary University of Rhode Island
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Branches of botany