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The persecution of Christians in the New Testament is an important part of the
Early Christian Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish d ...
narrative which depicts the early Church as being
persecuted Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms ...
for their heterodox beliefs by a Jewish establishment in what was then the Roman province of
Judea Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...
. The
New Testament The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
, especially the
Gospel of John The Gospel of John ( grc, Εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Ἰωάννην, translit=Euangélion katà Iōánnēn) is the fourth of the four canonical gospels. It contains a highly schematic account of the ministry of Jesus, with seven "sig ...
(c. 90–100 AD- although there is no evidence in the text of the sack of Jerusalem in 70 AD, so may be earlier), has traditionally been interpreted as relating Christian accounts of the Pharisee rejection of Jesus and accusations of the Pharisee responsibility for his crucifixion. The
Acts of the Apostles The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
depicts instances of early Christian persecution by the
Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Aramaic: סַנְהֶדְרִין; Greek: , ''synedrion'', 'sitting together,' hence 'assembly' or 'council') was an assembly of either 23 or 71 elders (known as "rabbis" after the destruction of the Second Temple), ap ...
, the Jewish religious court at the time.
Walter Laqueur Walter Ze'ev Laqueur (26 May 1921 – 30 September 2018) was a German-born American historian, journalist and political commentator. He was an influential scholar on the subjects of terrorism and political violence. Biography Walter Laqueur was ...
argues that hostility between Christians and Jews grew over the generations. By the
4th century The 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini/Common era) was the time period which lasted from 301 (Roman numerals, CCCI) through 400 (Roman numerals, CD). In the West, the early part of the century was shaped by Constantine the Grea ...
,
John Chrysostom John Chrysostom (; gr, Ἰωάννης ὁ Χρυσόστομος; 14 September 407) was an important Early Church Father who served as archbishop of Constantinople. He is known for his homilies, preaching and public speaking, his denunciat ...
was arguing that the
Pharisees The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
alone, not the Romans, were responsible for the murder of Christ. However, according to Laqueur: "Absolving
Pilate Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of J ...
from guilt may have been connected with the missionary activities of early Christianity in Rome and the desire not to antagonize those they want to convert."


Basic context

This account of persecution is part of a general theme of a polemic against the Jews that starts with the Pharisee rejection of Jesus's ministry, the cleansing of the Temple, and continues on with his trial before the High Priest, his
crucifixion Crucifixion is a method of capital punishment in which the victim is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross or beam and left to hang until eventual death from exhaustion and asphyxiation. It was used as a punishment by the Persians, Carthagin ...
, and the Pharisees' refusal to accept him as the
Jewish messiah The Messiah in Judaism () is a savior and liberator figure in Jewish eschatology, who is believed to be the future redeemer of the Jewish people. The concept of messianism originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible a messiah is a king or Hig ...
. This theme plays a significant part in a number of Christian doctrines ranging from the release of Christians from obeying the Old Testament Law to the commandment to preach to "all nations" (meaning to
gentiles Gentile () is a word that usually means "someone who is not a Jew". Other groups that claim Israelite heritage, notably Mormons, sometimes use the term ''gentile'' to describe outsiders. More rarely, the term is generally used as a synonym for ...
as well as
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
) to the concepts of
supersessionism Supersessionism, also called replacement theology or fulfillment theology, is a Christian theology which asserts that the New Covenant through Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ has superseded or replaced the Mosaic covenant exclusive to the Jews ...
.


Depictions in Luke–Acts


Introduction

Luke–Acts Luke–Acts is the composite work of the ''Gospel according to Luke'' and the ''Acts of the Apostles'' in the New Testament. Both of these books of the Bible are credited to Luke. They also describe the narrative of those who continued to spread Ch ...
contains numerous references to and episodes of persecution against Christians, carried out primarily by Jews and Roman authorities. As historiography, the scholarly consensus is that Luke–Acts presents a skewed picture of the hardships faced by the early Church. While evidence for isolated incidents have been foundReasoner 915 there exists a great deal of historical evidence for persecution of early Christians by the JewsReasoner 913 or the Romans. These opposing views do not present difficulty to asking what purpose persecution serves in the narrative and what Luke–Acts' presentation of persecution suggests about the author's motivations. The suggested purpose of persecution in Luke–Acts have included: to portray Christianity as a non-threat to the Romans by contrasting the movement with a disruptive Jewish community;Wilson 70 to craft a
polemic Polemic () is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called ''polemics'', which are seen in arguments on controversial topics ...
to discredit critics of Christianity;Kelhoffer 351 and to provide encouragement in times of hardship.Maddox 81


Examples of persecution in Luke

Compared with the
Acts of the Apostles The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
, the
Gospel of Luke The Gospel of Luke), or simply Luke (which is also its most common form of abbreviation). tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ. Together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volu ...
contains few explicit examples of persecution against Christians. There are, however, several passages that mention coming difficulties for Jesus' followers and Jerusalem, which scholars believe foreshadow the hardships Christians will face in Acts. For instance, while
Matthew Matthew may refer to: * Matthew (given name) * Matthew (surname) * ''Matthew'' (ship), the replica of the ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497 * ''Matthew'' (album), a 2000 album by rapper Kool Keith * Matthew (elm cultivar), a cultivar of the Ch ...
(13:53-58) and
Mark Mark may refer to: Currency * Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina * East German mark, the currency of the German Democratic Republic * Estonian mark, the currency of Estonia between 1918 and 1927 * Fi ...
(6:1-6) have versions of the rejection of Jesus in his hometown, Luke (4:14-30) devotes much more time to the episode than the other gospels. S. G. Wilson suggests that this might give a glimpse of later persecution by Jews and rejection of the Jewish mission for a gentile mission in Acts (13:46).Wilson 57 In Luke, Jesus speaks of "people hohate" and "defame you on account of the Son of Man" and likens his followers' suffering to that of earlier prophets (6:22-23 NRSV). Jesus later says to "not fear those who kill the body and after that can do nothing more" (12:4 NRSV). The major exception to these less direct references to persecution is the
Passion narrative In Christianity, the Passion (from the Latin verb ''patior, passus sum''; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) is the short final period in the life of Jesus Christ. Depending on one's views, the "Passion" m ...
in 22:1-23:56. Jewish chief priests and scribes plot to kill Jesus (22:1-6), arrest him (22:47-52), question him before the
Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Aramaic: סַנְהֶדְרִין; Greek: , ''synedrion'', 'sitting together,' hence 'assembly' or 'council') was an assembly of either 23 or 71 elders (known as "rabbis" after the destruction of the Second Temple), ap ...
and then take him to the Roman prefect
Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of J ...
(22:66-23:1). Jesus is questioned by Pilate (23:3-5), "Herod" (believed to be
Agrippa I Herod Agrippa (Roman name Marcus Julius Agrippa; born around 11–10 BC – in Caesarea), also known as Herod II or Agrippa I (), was a grandson of Herod the Great and King of Judea from AD 41 to 44. He was the father of Herod Agrippa II, the l ...
) (23:6-12), sentenced to death (23:21-25), crucified, died, and buried (23:26-56). Luke's depiction of Pilate is thought by scholars to be key to understanding the author of Luke–Acts' opinion of the Roman Empire.


Examples of persecution in the Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles, which tells the story of the early Christian church, contains a multitude of episodes highlighting persecution. The majority of these conflicts occur between Christians and Jews, though there are examples of persecution by Gentiles (such as the diviner-slave's owners in 16:16-24) and Romans (28:16). While Kelhoffer and Wilson have argued there is a purposeful pattern of Jewish-led persecution in Luke–Acts,Wilson 69 there is significant doubt over how historically accurate Luke–Acts' portrayal of Christian-Jewish relations is and how wide reaching (whether directed at specific Jewish groups or 'Jews' as a whole) and seriously this polemic was meant be taken. Secondly, the Roman court system features heavily in the later chapters when
Saint Paul Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
is brought to trial before several different officials. Paul is tried through the procedure of '' cognitio extra ordinem'', wherein the Roman magistrate participates in all parts of the trial, from evidence gathering, to inquisition, to judgment. A similar system can be seen in
Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate ...
's letter 10.96 *4:3-22, 5:17-42: Peter and John arrested by Sadducees, questioned by the Sanhedrin, and flogged (5:40 only) *6:8-8:1: Stephen is arrested by "the people…the elders and the scribes" (6:12 NRSV), questioned before the Sanhedrin, and stoned to death, supposedly sparking a "severe persecution against the church in Jerusalem" (8:1). *8:3, 9:2: Saul (whose Roman name was Paul) imprisons many Christians *9:23-24, 20:19, 23:12-14: Jews plot to kill Paul *12:1-5: King Herod (believed to be Agrippa I) executes James and imprisons Peter *13:44-51: Paul and Barnabas being driven out of Antioch of Pisidia. *14:5-6: Jews and Gentiles attempt unsuccessfully to stone Paul and Barnabas *14:19-20: Jews stone Paul nearly to death *16:16-24: Paul and Silas are flogged and imprisoned by Gentiles in Philippi. *17:1-15: Paul and others are chased out of successive towns by Jews *18:12-17: Paul is made to appear before the Roman proconsul Gallop in Achaia, who dismisses the case as an internal dispute. *19:23-41: Worshippers of Artemis in Ephesus riot against Paul and his companions, but they are not harmed. *19:27-28:30: In his final journey to Rome, Paul is taken by Jews in Jerusalem to be killed, but is rescued by Roman soldiers who imprison him. He testifies before the Sanhedrin (22:30-23:11), and the governor Felix at Caesarea (24:1-27) before using his status as a Roman citizen (22:29) to have his case heard by the emperor.


Luke–Acts' opinion of Romans and Jews

While evidence has been offered both to argue Luke–Acts' positive view of the Roman Empire and the opposite, scholars tend to see Luke–Acts as pro-RomanReasoner 907 and analyze it as though it was written with a Roman (though not exclusively) audience in mind.Kelhoffer 344 Larger Lukan themes like the Gentile mission, which sought to spread Christianity beyond the
Jewish diaspora The Jewish diaspora ( he, תְּפוּצָה, təfūṣā) or exile (Hebrew: ; Yiddish: ) is the dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland (the Land of Israel) and their subsequent settlement in other parts of t ...
, support this reading. Even as scholars point to passages sympathetic to Jews, there is wide agreement that a strong anti-Jewish streak runs through Luke–Acts, even if it is not always consistent. Because these passages have been used throughout history to justify anti-Semitism, scholars like Luke T. Johnson have attempted to nuance the portrayal of the Jews both by presenting a less homogenous dichotomy of 'Christians' versus 'Jews' and by contextualizing the polemics within the rhetoric of contemporaneous philosophical debate, showing how rival schools of thought routinely insulted and slandered their opponents. These attacks were formulaic and stereotyped, crafted to define who was the enemy in the debates, but not used with the expectation that their insults and accusations would be taken literally, as they would be centuries later. Furthermore, Luke–Acts certainly holds Jewish texts in high regard, repeatedly referencing them in relation to Jesus and others, casting doubt on interpretations that Luke–Acts is trying to completely divorce itself from its Jewish heritage.


Purpose of persecution

If Luke–Acts is not an accurate catalog of every Christian persecution during the first century, scholars have offered a variety of interpretative frameworks to understand what motivated the author of the books and how the author uses persecution to argue their claims. These interpretations include:


Persecution used to contrast Jews and Christians

S. G. Wilson has argued that Luke–Acts was composed to portray Christianity as a more peaceable form of Judaism to the books' (in part) Roman audience. He points to Luke–Acts' deep reverence for and reliance on Jewish scripture to legitimate Jesus and the mission of the Church (cf. Luke 3:4-6, Acts2:17-21) as evidence for the author's continued connection to Jewish heritage, even as the author sees as Christianity's future goal to spread to the Gentiles. Wilson argues that in Acts, Jews are depicted as repeatedly stirring up trouble for both Christians and Roman authorities (cf. 17:6-7, 18:13, 24:12-13), and the accused Christians are repeatedly found innocent by the Roman authorities, often by showing how they upheld both Roman and Jewish laws (cf. 23:6, 24:14-21, 26:23, 28:20) and were, therefore, morally superior to their accusers.


Persecution as a rhetorical weapon against critics

Kelhoffer spends part of his book ''Persecution, Persuasion and Power'' arguing that persecution in Luke–Acts is used by the author to accomplish three things: (1) question the legitimacy of the accusers, (2) confirm the legitimacy of the faithful accused, and (3) derive legitimacy for the author's Gentile audience who might be suffering their own persecution. For example, in the story of Stephen's martyrdom, Stephen links his accusers to those who resisted Moses (Acts 7:51-53), and his death is paralleled with Jesus' (Acts 7:59-60). Acts 28:25-28 also provides strong encouragement and validation for Gentiles readers, while Acts 9:4-5 makes a direct link between the persecuted and Jesus, which further indicts any critics or persecutors of Christianity. Kelhoffer sees the author of Luke–Acts as turning the dishonor of persecution into an honor, placing those who suffer "on account of the Son of Man" (Luke 6:22 NSRV) in the legacy of Old Testament and Israelite salvation history.


Persecution as a tool for example and encouragement

Robert Maddox interprets Paul's experiences in Luke–Acts as the model example for its audience, not only as a devout believer but also as one who suffers repeated persecution. Passages like Luke 12:4-7 and Acts 14:22 are read by Maddox as warning Christians of the hardships they will face. Evidence for the deep value early Christians put on persecution may also be found in Acts 5:41 and Acts 8:1-4 (which states that even as Christians were persecuted, they spread the word). Additionally, in Luke 6:26, 40, Jesus speaks of coming hardship not just for himself, but for his followers. Touching on a theme that will be later explored more fully by Stephen in his final speech in Acts (7:1-53), Jesus and his followers are likened to the Jewish prophets of old, who were rejected by the Israelites despite being sent by God. Therefore, to follow Jesus is to suffer greatly as he will later in Luke. Through his crucifixion Jesus becomes the most important and potent example of suffering for which every Christian must prepare; those who do will be justly rewarded (Luke 6:22-23).


Elsewhere in the New Testament


In the Gospel of Mark


Context

Mark was probably written after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD and contains multiple references to persecution of Christians. There is a great deal of argument in the scholarly community about to whom it is addressed. When looking at persecution in this text, it should be remembered that the provinces were largely autonomous and that the governors had complete legal control under cognitio extra ordinem, meaning that while there was no empire wide persecution when Mark was written, it is possible that Christians were being executed in various provinces. It is also important to realize that there was probably persecution of Christians, especially Jewish Christians by Jews because they were seen as disturbing the peace, which could lead to retribution by the Romans.


Galatians

In his
Epistle to the Galatians The Epistle to the Galatians is the ninth book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul the Apostle to a number of Early Christian communities in Galatia. Scholars have suggested that this is either the Roman province of Galatia in sou ...
, Paul indicates several times that the Jews have persecuted Christians, beginning with his admission of his own persecution of the Christians prior to his conversion () and ending with his suggestion that he is presently being persecuted because he no longer preaches
circumcision Circumcision is a surgical procedure, procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin ...
(). This may be one of the stronger proofs of such persecution, as Paul's admission of guilt would be foolish if there were not actually a widespread persecution of Christians by Jews. Few people seeking converts to their cause, would do so by falsely admitting to a crime.


2nd Corinthians

In the
Second Epistle to the Corinthians The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author named Timothy, and is addressed to the church in Corinth and Christians in the ...
,
Paul the Apostle Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
asserts that he had been persecuted by the Jews on numerous occasions:


Revelation

Leonard L. Thompson argues that the
Book of Revelation The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament (and consequently the final book of the Christian Bible). Its title is derived from the first word of the Koine Greek text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of R ...
was written during the reign of
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
(81–96 AD). From the middle down to the last quarter of the first century,Porter, Stanley E., and Westfall, Cynthia L. Empire in the New Testament. Eugene, Or.: Pickwick Publications, 2011. Print. extensive persecutions were carried out throughout the Empire, although they were sporadic. Most were initiated by local governors, who were expected to keep their cities ''pacate atque quita'' ("settled and orderly"). As pressure from the demands of the citizens to get rid of the Christians became harder to ignore or control, they were driven to acquiesce. The author, "John", found himself "…on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus" (Rev. 1:9 NRSV), and it was there that he wrote the Book of Revelation. In several of his messages addressed to the Seven Churches of Asia, John makes references to past and future times of persecution, trial and death, and calls upon their endurance and faith. In his letter to Ephesus, he writes: " I know your works, your toil and your patient endurance… I also know that you are enduring patiently and bearing up for the sake of my name…" (2:2-3 NRSV). To Smyrna: "I know of your affliction and your poverty… Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Beware, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison so that you may be tested… Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life" (2:9-10 NRSV). And to Pergamum: "I know where you are living, where Satan's throne is. Yet you are holding fast to my name, and you did not deny your faith in me even in the days of Antipas my witness, my faithful one, who was killed among you, where Satan lives" (2:13 NRSV). There are also passages in which John refers to martyrs. Revelation 6:9-11 and 20:4 seem to indicate that many Christians were tortured and killed for their beliefs, and, in his vision, they "…cried out with a loud voice, 'Sovereign Lord…how long will it be before you judge and avenge our blood on the inhabitants of the earth?'" (6:10 NRSV). John portrays the Roman Empire—called "the great whore Babylon"—as "being drunk with the blood of the saints and the blood of the witnesses to Jesus" (17:6 NRSV). The Book of Revelation progresses with the wrath of God poured upon the Earth as retribution for the sufferings of the faithful Christians. It ends with the Fall of Babylon and Christ's defeat of Satan, after which there is "new heaven and a new earth" (21:1 NRSV).


Basis in sectarian conflict

One perspective holds that the earliest examples of Jewish persecution of Christians are examples of Jewish persecution of other Jews, that is, sectarian conflict. Prior to the destruction of the Temple, Judaism was extremely heterodox; after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70, early Christians and
Pharisees The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
(the
Second Temple The Second Temple (, , ), later known as Herod's Temple, was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem between and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple, which had been built at the same location in the United Kingdom of Israel before being inherited ...
group that would become
Rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism ( he, יהדות רבנית, Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian ...
) vied for influence among Jews. According to
Douglas R. A. Hare Douglas R. A. Hare was a naturalized American professor and writer. He was born March 22, 1929, in Simcoe, Ontario. He died in May, 2015. Douglas R. A. Hare authored many books, articles and essays concerned with both the Old and New testaments an ...
, "it has long been recognized that in the Gospel according to
St. Matthew Matthew the Apostle,, shortened to ''Matti'' (whence ar, مَتَّى, Mattā), meaning "Gift of YHWH"; arc, , Mattai; grc-koi, Μαθθαῖος, ''Maththaîos'' or , ''Matthaîos''; cop, ⲙⲁⲧⲑⲉⲟⲥ, Mattheos; la, Matthaeus a ...
the conflict between Jesus and the Pharisees has been intensified and it has often been suggested that this intensification reflects the continued struggle between the
Church Church may refer to: Religion * Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities * Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination * Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship * Chris ...
and the
synagogue A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
." Hare asserts that prior to the first revolt, Jewish persecution of Christians was more frequently directed at Christian missionaries to synagogues in the Jewish diaspora than against the church in Jerusalem. Organized opposition to Christianity appeared during the first revolt (when nationalist sentiment was high) and after it (when Pharisaic dominance of the synagogue was established). Few Christians were martyred prior to the
Bar Kokhba revolt The Bar Kokhba revolt ( he, , links=yes, ''Mereḏ Bar Kōḵḇāʾ‎''), or the 'Jewish Expedition' as the Romans named it ( la, Expeditio Judaica), was a rebellion by the Jews of the Judea (Roman province), Roman province of Judea, led b ...
. Most of those who were killed were victims of mob violence rather than official action. None were executed for purely religious reasons although individual missionaries were banned, detained and flogged for breach of the peace. According to Hare, the numerous New Testament references to persecution reflect early Christian expectations of persecution based perhaps on the pre-Christian "conviction that the Jews had always persecuted the messengers of God". G. Fox asserts that Jewish persecution of the followers of Jesus started ''only'' when Christianity started spreading among Gentiles and when the Jews realized the separation between themselves and Christians.Davies, p.74 Paul E. Davies states that the violent persecuting zeal displayed by some Jews sharpened the criticisms of the Jews in the Gospels as they were written. Fox argues that the hostile utterances of rabbis were towards those Christians who did not support Bar Kokhba and was due to anti-Jewish feelings which were caused by Gentile converts to Christianity. This however is controversial as only certain segments of the community ever accepted Bar Kokhba as the
messiah In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; , ; , ; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of ''mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach'' ...
, while many rabbis scorned such a proposition. Fox also argues that the persecution accusations and stories of early Christians martrydom are exaggerated by the Church.G. George Fox, p.84 He asserts that it is unhistorical to assume that the matrydom of Stephen was representative of a widespread persecution of Christians because events of this nature weren't uncommon in that time. In support of this assertion, Fox argues that thousands of Jews were killed by Romans and it wasn't something new or novel. Thus the persecution hardly started before 70 AD and when it was started by Bar Kokhba, it wasn't not on purely theological grounds but also because of the disloyalty of Christians in the rebellion against the Romans. Claudia Setzer draws a distinction between Jews and Christians (both Jewish and Gentile) as to when the perception of Christianity as a Jewish sect was replaced by an understanding of Christianity as a new and separate religion. Setzer asserts that, "Jews did not see Christians as clearly separate from their own community until at least the middle of the second century." By contrast, "almost from the outset Christians have a consciousness of themselves as distinct from other Jews." Thus, acts of Jewish persecution of Christians fall within the boundaries of synagogue discipline and were so perceived by Jews acting and thinking as the established community. The Christians, on the other hand, being a new movement, worked out their identity in contrast and opposition to the Jewish community and saw themselves as persecuted rather than "disciplined." According to Paula Fredriksen, in ''From Jesus to Christ'', the reason was that Jewish Christians were preaching the imminent return of the King of the Jews and the establishment of his kingdom. To Roman ears, such talk was seditious. Romans gave Jews at that time limited self-rule (see Iudaea Province); the main obligations of Jewish leaders were to collect taxes for Rome, and to maintain civil order. Thus, Jewish leaders would have to suppress any seditious talk. In cases where Jewish leaders did not suppress seditious talk, they were often sent to Rome for trial and execution, or in the cases of
Herod Archelaus Herod Archelaus (, ''Hērōidēs Archelaos''; 23 BC – ) was ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea, including the cities Caesarea Maritima, Caesarea and Jaffa, for a period of nine years (). He was the son of Herod the Great and Mal ...
and
Herod Antipas Herod Antipas ( el, Ἡρῴδης Ἀντίπας, ''Hērǭdēs Antipas''; born before 20 BC – died after 39 AD), was a 1st-century ruler of Galilee and Perea, who bore the title of tetrarch ("ruler of a quarter") and is referred to as both "H ...
merely deposed and exiled to
Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
.Catholic Encyclopedia: Herod
"He rchelaussoon aroused opposition by marrying his brother's wife -- a crime like that of Antipas later -- and having been accused of cruelty by his subjects, "not able to bear his barbarous and tyrannical usage of them", he was banished to Vienne, Gaul, A. D. 7 in the tenth year of his government (Jos., "Ant.", XVII, ix, xiii, 1, 2)."; "Contrary to his better judgment he ntipaswent, and soon learned that Agrippa by messengers had accused him before Caligula of conspiracy against the Romans. The emperor banished him to Lyons, Gaul (France), A. D. 39, and Herodias accompanied him (Jos., "Ant.", XVIII, vii, 2). Josephus (Bel. Jud., II, ix, 6) says: "So Herod died in Spain whither his wife had followed him". The year of his death is not known. To reconcile the two statements of Josephus about the place of exile and death, see Smith, "Dict. of the Bible", s. v. "Herodias" (note)."


See also

* '' Acta Sanctorum'' *
Anti-Judaism Anti-Judaism is the "total or partial opposition to Judaism as a religion—and the total or partial opposition to Jews as adherents of it—by persons who accept a competing system of beliefs and practices and consider certain genuine Judai ...
*
Antisemitism in early Christianity Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity is a description of anti-Judaic sentiment in the first three centuries of Christianity; the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries. Early Christianity is sometimes considered as Christianity before 325 when the First Counci ...
* Antisemitism in the New Testament *
Catholic Church and Judaism Christianity started as a movement within Judaism in the mid-1st century. Worshipers of the diverging religions initially co-existed, but began branching out under Paul the Apostle. In 380, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Emp ...
*
Christianity and antisemitism Antisemitism in Christianity, a form of religious antisemitism, is the feeling of hostility which some Christian Churches, Christian denomination, Christian groups, and ordinary Christians have towards the Judaism, Jewish religion and the Jews, Je ...
*
Christian–Jewish reconciliation Christian−Jewish reconciliation refers to the efforts that are being made to improve understanding and acceptance between Christians and Jews. There has been significant progress in reconciliation in recent years, in particular by the Catholic C ...
*
Council of Jamnia The Council of Jamnia (presumably Yavneh in the Holy Land) was a council purportedly held late in the 1st century CE to finalize the canon of the Hebrew Bible. It has also been hypothesized to be the occasion when the Jewish authorities decided ...
* Expounding of the Law#Love for enemies * Judaism and Christianity *
History of the Jews and the Crusades The History of the Jews and the Crusades was a part of the history of antisemitism towards the Jews in the Middle Ages. The call for the First Crusade intensified the persecutions of the Jews that would continue with subsequent crusades. Typicall ...
* Origins of Christianity


References


Sources

* Douglas R. A. Hare. ''The Theme of Jewish Persecution of Christians in the Gospel According to St Matthew''. Series: Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series (No. 6) * De Ste Croix, G. E. M. Geoffrey, Ernest Maurice, Michael Whitby, and Joseph Streeter. ''Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy''. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2006 * E G. Downing, "Pliny's Prosecution of Christians: Revelation and 1 Peter," ''Journal for the Study of the New Testament'', 34(1988) 105-23 * Lillian C. Freudmann. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America (1994); *
W.H.C. Frend William Hugh Clifford Frend (11 January 1916 – 1 August 2005) was an English ecclesiastical historian, archaeologist, and Anglican priest. Academic career * Haileybury College (scholar) * Keble College, Oxford (scholar, BA first class in ...
, 1965. ''Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church'', Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965 * Luke T. Johnson. "The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and the Conventions of Ancient Polemic", ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', 108.3 (1989): 419-441. * James A. Kelhoffer. Persecution, ''Persuasion and Power: Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament''. vol. 270. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010. * "law and procedure, Roman", ''Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World''. Ed. John Roberts. Oxford University Press, 2007. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Chicago. 28 May 2012 * Robert Maddox. ''The Purpose of Luke-Acts''. Vol. 126. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982. * Paul Halsall Mar. ''Medieval Sourcebook: Pliny on the Christians''. Fordham University. Accessed 5/29/12 at * Mark Reasoner. "Persecution", In Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids (eds.). ''Dictionary of the Later New Testament and its Developments'', Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997. 907-913 * James Everett Seaver. ''The Persecution of the Jews in the Roman Empire (300-428)''. University of Kansas Publications, 1952. Humanistic Studies, No. 30 * Claudia Setzer. ''Jewish Responses to Early Christians: History and Polemics, 30-150 C.E.'' Fortress. Minneapolis. 1994 254pp. * Steve Walton. "The State They Were In" in Peter Oakes (ed.), ''Rome in the Bible and the Early Church''. Carlisle, Cumbria, UK :Grand Rapids, MI: Paternoster Press; Baker Academic, 2002. 1-41 * S. G. Wilson. ''Related Strangers: Jews and Christians, 70-170 C.E.'', Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995.


External links


Schaff's History of the Christian Church, Volume II, ''Chapter II: Persecution of Christianity and Christian Martyrdom''
Section 14: Jewish Persecution

{{DEFAULTSORT:Persecution Of Christians In The New Testament Bible-related controversies 1st-century Christianity Judaism in the New Testament