The smokybrown cockroach (''Periplaneta fuliginosa'') is a large species of
cockroach
Cockroaches (or roaches) are a paraphyletic group of insects belonging to Blattodea, containing all members of the group except termites. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Some species are well-known as ...
, winged, and growing to a length of .
[Appel, A. G., & Smith II, L. M. (2002). Biology and management of the smokybrown cockroach. ''Annual Review of Entomology'', 47, 33–55]
Characteristics
![Smokybrown cockroach on back](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Smokybrown_cockroach_on_back.JPG)
Although closely related to the
American cockroach
The american cockroach (''Periplaneta americana'') is the largest species of common cockroach, and often considered a pest. In certain regions of the U.S. it is colloquially known as the waterbug, though it is not a true waterbug since it is not ...
(''Periplaneta americana''), the smokybrown cockroach is readily distinguishable from it by its uniformly light to dark brown–
mahogany
Mahogany is a straight-grained, reddish-brown timber of three tropical hardwood species of the genus ''Swietenia'', indigenous to the AmericasBridgewater, Samuel (2012). ''A Natural History of Belize: Inside the Maya Forest''. Austin: Unive ...
coloration.
Furthermore, unlike the ''P. americana'', which possesses a light-rimmed pattern on its thorax, the smokybrown cockroach's thorax is dark and shiny.
Diet
The smokybrown cockroach is a
detritivore
Detritivores (also known as detrivores, detritophages, detritus feeders, or detritus eaters) are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing plant and animal parts as well as feces). There are many kinds of invertebrates, ...
and can feed off a wide array of organic (including decaying) matter.
Like most cockroaches, it is a
scavenger
Scavengers are animals that consume dead organisms that have died from causes other than predation or have been killed by other predators. While scavenging generally refers to carnivores feeding on carrion, it is also a herbivorous feeding b ...
, whereby it feeds on many different types of foods including dry
earthworms
An earthworm is a terrestrial invertebrate that belongs to the phylum Annelida. They exhibit a tube-within-a-tube body plan; they are externally segmented with corresponding internal segmentation; and they usually have setae on all segments. Th ...
, pet food, pet waste such as feces and urine, paper, and many types of ripe fruits.
Habitat and distribution
The smokybrown cockroach is very common in
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, as well as the
southern United States
The Southern United States (sometimes Dixie, also referred to as the Southern States, the American South, the Southland, or simply the South) is a geographic and cultural region of the United States of America. It is between the Atlantic Ocean ...
and tropical climates; notably, it can be found in
Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, Eastern
North Carolina
North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...
,
Louisiana
Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...
,
Mississippi
Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
,
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
, and other
Gulf coastal states, and along the southern
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it f ...
.
The cockroach can also be found in
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, such as in warmer cities like
Sydney
Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
and
Brisbane
Brisbane ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the states and territories of Australia, Australian state of Queensland, and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a populati ...
. Most notably in South America, these cockroaches are seen in Argentina to Paraguay geographical range.
The cockroach has also been recently reported in Asia, Europe, Australia, and Northern America.
The smoky brown cockroach prefers warmer
climates
Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorologic ...
and is not cold-tolerant.
[Fleet, R. R., Piper, G. L., & Frankie, G. W. (1978). Studies on the population ecology of the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'', in a Texas outdoor urban environment. ''Environmental Entomology'', 7, 807–814.] It may, however, be able to survive colder climates by goin
indoors It often lives around the perimeter of buildings especially places where these insects can feed and confine themselves.
Behavior and adaptations
The smokybrown cockroach may come indoors during daylight hours to look for food and even to live; generally, however, in warm weather, it will move outdoors.
They tend to lose moisture twice as fast as their relative, ''Periplaneta Americana'', therefore requiring environmental conditions with constant moisture to avoid drying out. Their activity patterns are mostly restricted to evening hours when humidity is highest.
The movement to and from shelters is greatest when temperatures exceed and often becomes less when temperatures are lower than .
Since adults are less susceptible than nymphs to the effects of higher temperatures, adults are more often found away from the perimeters of the house.
Often during reproductive periods, females ready for egg dispersal infest homes to protect their offspring and find a convenient place to oviposit.
This adaptation is advantageous to these cockroaches, as egg production often becomes limited when temperatures reach .
Reproduction
Oviposition
''P. fuliginosa'' can reproduce through
sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a gamete ( haploid reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes combines with another gamete to produce a zygote tha ...
and in some cases through
parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development ...
, which is a form of
asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the fu ...
.
[Xian, X. (1998). Effects of mating on oviposition, and possibility of parthenogenesis of three domestic cockroach species, the American cockroach ''Periplaneta americana''; the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fulginosa''; and the German cockroach, ''Blattella germanica''. ''Medical Entomology and Zoology'', 49, 27–32.] In cases where females do not have access to mates, females reproduce by parthenogenesis, however, this form of reproduction is not as commonly seen as sexual reproduction.
Females can
oviposit
The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typical ...
an average of 10 or more
oothecae
An ootheca (pl. ''oothecae'' ) is a type of egg mass made by any member of a variety of species including mollusks (such as ''Turbinella laevigata''), mantises, and cockroaches.
The word is a Latinized combination of ''oo-'', meaning "egg", fro ...
in favorable environments, but this is highly dependent on the cockroaches' body fat, thereby as her body mass decreases fewer ootheca are oviposited in a season. The oothecae, dark brown color, commonly ranges from in length.
On average female cockroaches without mates live longer, than females with a mate.
In a study done, it was found that on average adult females lived 117–174 days, whereas females without a mate lived to 131–236 days after reaching adulthood.
The higher energy costs associated with
oogenesis
Oogenesis, ovogenesis, or oögenesis is the differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a cell competent to further develop when fertilized. It is developed from the primary oocyte by maturation. Oogenesis is initiated in the embryonic stage.
O ...
and the prevalence of oviposition point to a shorter lifespan.
Furthermore, an extended oviposition period occurs, as a result, fewer
eggs
Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...
are formed.
Sexual reproduction also leads to lower instances of oothecae defects without the presence of eggs compared to reproducing asexually.
Mating behaviour
Females release volatile
sex pheromones
Sex pheromones are pheromones released by an organism to attract an individual of the same species, encourage them to mate with them, or perform some other function closely related with sexual reproduction.
Sex pheromones specifically focus on ind ...
stimulating the mating behavior of ''P. fuliginosa'' males, which receive the chemical signals through sensory receptors located on their
antennae.
[Takahashi, S., Watanabe, K., Saito, S., & Nomura, Y. (1995). Isolation and biological activity of the sex pheromone of the smoky brown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' Serville (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 30, 357–360.] These pheromones are made up of synthetic
Periplanone-D, which is a major sex excitatory component of the pheromone chemical composition.
In addition, the males often participate in perching, whereby their body conformation includes a pointing downward of the head, forelegs extended, as their antennae become aligned 45° from their vertical position.
[Appel, A. G., & Rust. M. K. (1986). Time-activity budgets and spatial distribution patterns of the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). ''Annals of the Entomological Society of America'', 79, 104–108.] Whereby, in female mate calling the cockroaches' body is up high, the
dorsal
Dorsal (from Latin ''dorsum'' ‘back’) may refer to:
* Dorsal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location referring to the back or upper side of an organism or parts of an organism
* Dorsal, positioned on top of an aircraft's fuselage
* Dorsal co ...
end of the
abdomen
The abdomen (colloquially called the belly, tummy, midriff, tucky or stomach) is the part of the body between the thorax (chest) and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The abdomen is the front part of the abdominal segment of the torso. ...
bend towards the ground, and wings are held at a 45° angle.
These male cockroaches allocate significantly more time and energy to mating behaviors than females as the production of female pheromones is costly.
Moreover, spending 20% of their time perching, whereby in retrospect females only spend 8% of their time mate calling.
Morphology
Cuticle physiology
Temperature and levels of humidity are factors that greatly influence the smoky brown cockroaches'
cuticular
A cuticle (), or cuticula, is any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide protection. Various types of "cuticle" are non- homologous, differing in their origin, structu ...
water loss, therefore these insects are attracted to highly humid areas to reduce the permeability of their cuticle.
[Appel, A. G., Reierson, D. A., & Rust, M. K. (1986). Cuticular water loss in the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. ''Journal of Insect Physiology'', 32, 623–628.][Appel, A. G., & Rust, M. K. (1985). Water distribution and loss in response to acclimation at constant humidity in the smokybrown cockroach, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' (Serville). ''Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology'', 80, 377–380.] The amount of
lipid
Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids include ...
composition of the cockroach also directly correlates to lower body transpiration, in addition, but provides these species with a more water barrier easing the permeability of the cuticle.
Therefore, as the water levels drop from sun exposure, the circulation of materials in the blood is also slowly diminishing.
Over time even when restricted to certain habitats due to the physiology of their cuticle, they are able to acclimatize through
homeostasis
In biology, homeostasis (British English, British also homoeostasis) Help:IPA/English, (/hɒmɪə(ʊ)ˈsteɪsɪs/) is the state of steady internal, physics, physical, and chemistry, chemical conditions maintained by organism, living systems. Thi ...
seen by decreased salivary gland production.
''P. fuliginosa'', are able to upkeep homeostasis in fluctuating moisture regions by changing their drinking habits, and the water flow rate of fecal matter, as well as cuticle
transpiration
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth a ...
.
The cuticle is made up of many layers where much secretion is stored between the various plates.
[Ichinose, T., & Kishimoto, M. (1982). The comparative morphology of the caudal secretory hypodermis of three species of cockroaches, ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' SERV., ''P. japonica'' KARNY, and ''P. America L.'' (Orthoptera: Blattidae), with regard to their development and rearing densities. ''Applied Entomology and Zoology'', 18, 191–199.] These thick layers have various glandular cells, along with pores that connect through the cuticle to secrete the sticky protein substance.
The secretions of the hypodermal layer play a role in the nymph male defenses towards adult cockroaches.
Ecological impact
Pest status
''P. fuliginosa'' are considered
pests
PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
in many geographical areas around the world, including the Southern United States and Japan, as they are very effective at invading urba
homes restaurants, hospitals, and many other crowded places.
With their rapid invasion into homes, they are known as sanitary pests and have adapted to toxic bait traps being ineffective at eradicating these species.
[Ozawa, S., Vicente, C., Sato, K., Yoshiga, T., Kanzaki, N., & Hasegawa, K. (2014). First report of the nematode ''Leidynema appendiculata'' from ''Periplaneta fuliginosa''. ''Acta Parasitogica'', 59, 219–228.]
Impact to humans
These species can be detrimental to human health, thereby due to their proximity of inhabitance to humans they are a
vector
Vector most often refers to:
*Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction
*Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism
Vector may also refer to:
Mathematic ...
for
diseases
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that ar ...
from the
parasitism
Parasitism is a Symbiosis, close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the Host (biology), host, causing it some harm, and is Adaptation, adapted structurally to this way of lif ...
of
nematodes
The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broa ...
.
They are harmful due to humans through their ability to feed on
fecal matter
Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relat ...
, which transmits
parasites
Parasitism is a Symbiosis, close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the Host (biology), host, causing it some harm, and is Adaptation, adapted structurally to this way of lif ...
and many diseases.
The parasitic nematode, ''Leidynema appendiculata'', is known to parasitize the smoky brown cockroach, in which they invade and live in the cockroach's gut.
The eggs of the nematode are passed through the cockroach's feces and spread to other hosts by cockroaches eating the excrement.
The invasion of homes by these cockroaches greatly increases the prevalence of asthma, pathogen exposure, and allergen
seen[Jiang, H., Zhou, L., Zhang, J. M., Dong, H. F., Hu, Y. Y., & Jiang, M. S. (2008). Potential of ''Periplaneta fuliginosa'' densovirus as a biocontrol agent for smoky-brown cockroach, ''P. fuliginosa''. ''Biological Control'', 46, 94–100.] Exposure to the cockroach's feces, the shed outer layer of the exoskeleton, and other body parts mainly cause the transfer of parasites and allergens.
In addition, human exposure to these parasitic nematodes can cause conditions such as
colitis
Colitis is swelling or inflammation of the large intestine ( colon). Colitis may be acute and self-limited or long-term. It broadly fits into the category of digestive diseases.
In a medical context, the label ''colitis'' (without qualification) ...
, and infections of the female
reproductive tract
The reproductive system of an organism, also known as the genital system, is the biological system made up of all the anatomical sex organs, organs involved in sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pherom ...
.
Management practices
One of the control measures to avoid these inhabitants is the use of
insecticides
Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
, thereby spraying around the exterior of the house with a -wide barrier.
In addition, it has also been suggested to use these insecticides every month in the cracks, around windows, and any other accessible entry points for these, cockroaches to enter.
New insights have been set in using
virus
A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.
Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1 ...
technology to control the smoky brown cockroach.
The use of the
densovirus is an interesting technology to use as many methods are ill-equipped to minimize the impacts of the smoky brown cockroach as they can change their sensory behavior to insecticides over time.
In a study done, when ''P. fuliginosa'' are exposed to the artificially extracted densovirus from a diseased cockroach, high
mortality
Mortality is the state of being mortal, or susceptible to death; the opposite of immortality.
Mortality may also refer to:
* Fish mortality, a parameter used in fisheries population dynamics to account for the loss of fish in a fish stock throug ...
occurred with exposure to low
doses.
The use of a
biocontrol agent
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...
rather than insecticides is more advantageous as it is safer for humans and other organisms indirectly affected, additionally, targets ''P. fuliginosa'' directly.
Additional images
File:Periplaneta fuliginosa young nymphs.jpg, Young instar nymphs
References
External links
Black and white photographsof top view of ''P. fuliginosa'' male and female specimens, from ''Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections''.
Drawingsof body parts of male ''P. fuliginosa''; plate VII, figures 20–24 show detail of the pronotum, end of abdomen with cerci, supra-anal plate, subgenital plate, and genital process. From a 1917 article
[ (The article comprises the whole issue.)] by
Morgan Hebard
Morgan Hebard (February 23, 1887 – December 28, 1946) was an American entomologist who specialized in orthoptera, and assembled a collection of over 250,000 specimens.
Early life and education
Morgan Hebard was born on February 23, 1887, in Cle ...
, with a key to the figures on page 281.
Smoky Brown Cockroach – Identification, Control and Prevention TipsDoes Bleach Kill RoachesCockroach Biology and ManagementChapter 4 - Indoor and Outdoor Allergens and Pollutants
Cockroaches
Insects of the United States
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Insects described in 1839
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