Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury (planet), Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Mars (mythology), Roman god of war. Mars is a terr ...
has an orbit with a semimajor axis of 1.524
astronomical unit
The astronomical unit (symbol: au, or or AU) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun and approximately equal to or 8.3 light-minutes. The actual distance from Earth to the Sun varies by about 3% as Earth orbits t ...
s (228 million km), and an
eccentricity
Eccentricity or eccentric may refer to:
* Eccentricity (behavior), odd behavior on the part of a person, as opposed to being "normal"
Mathematics, science and technology Mathematics
* Off-Centre (geometry), center, in geometry
* Eccentricity (g ...
of 0.0934.
[Jean Meeus, ''Astronomical Formulæ for Calculators''. (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1988) 99. Elements by F. E. Ross] The planet orbits the Sun in 687 days and travels 9.55 AU in doing so,
[Jean Meeus, ''Astronomical Algorithms'' (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1998) 238. The formula by Ramanujan is accurate enough.] making the average orbital speed 24 km/s.
The eccentricity is greater than that of every other planet except Mercury, and this causes a large difference between the
aphelion and perihelion distances—they are 1.6660 and 1.3814 AU.
Changes in the orbit
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury (planet), Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Mars (mythology), Roman god of war. Mars is a terr ...
is in the midst of a long-term increase in eccentricity. It reached a minimum of 0.079 about 19 millennia ago, and will peak at about 0.105 after about 24 millennia from now (and with perihelion distances a mere 1.3621
astronomical unit
The astronomical unit (symbol: au, or or AU) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun and approximately equal to or 8.3 light-minutes. The actual distance from Earth to the Sun varies by about 3% as Earth orbits t ...
s). The orbit is at times near circular: it was 0.002 1.35 million years ago, and will reach a similar minima 1.05 million years into the future. The maximum eccentricity between those two extreme minima is 0.12 in about 200 thousand years. The ellipse, Mars' orbit, was discovered by Kepler.
Oppositions
Mars reaches
opposition
Opposition may refer to:
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* ''Opposition'' (Altars EP), 2011 EP by Christian metalcore band Altars
* The Opposition (band), a London post-punk band
* '' The Opposition with Jordan Klepper'', a late-night television series on Com ...
when there is a 180° difference between the geocentric longitudes of it and the Sun. At a time near opposition (within 8½ days) the Earth–Mars distance is as small as it will get during that 780-day
synodic period
The orbital period (also revolution period) is the amount of time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object. In astronomy, it usually applies to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, ...
. Every opposition has some significance because Mars is visible from Earth all night, high and fully lit, but the ones of special interest happen when Mars is near perihelion, because this is when Mars is also nearest to Earth. One perihelic opposition is followed by another either 15 or 17 years later. In fact every opposition is followed by a similar one 7 or 8 synodic periods later, and by a very similar one 37 synodic periods (79 years) later. In the so-called
perihelic opposition Mars is closest to the Sun and is particularly close to Earth: Oppositions range from about 0.68 AU when Mars is near aphelion to only about 0.37 AU when Mars is near perihelion.
Close approaches to Earth
Mars comes closer to Earth more than any other planet save Venus at its nearest—56 million km is the closest distance between Mars and Earth, whereas the closest Venus comes to Earth is 40 million km. Mars comes closest to Earth every other year, around the time of its opposition, when Earth is sweeping between the sun and Mars. Extra-close oppositions of Mars happen every 15 to 17 years, when we pass between Mars and the sun around the time of its perihelion (closest point to the sun in orbit). The minimum distance between Earth and Mars has been declining over the years, and in 2003 the minimum distance was 55.76 million km, nearer than any such encounter in almost 60,000 years (57,617 BC). The record minimum distance between Earth and Mars in 2729 will stand at 55.65 million km. In the year 3818, the record will stand at 55.44 million km, and the distances will continue to decrease for about 24,000 years.
Historical importance
Until the work of
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (; ; 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws ...
(1571–1630), a German astronomer, the prevailing belief was that the sun and planets orbited the earth.
In 1543,
Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus (; pl, Mikołaj Kopernik; gml, Niklas Koppernigk, german: Nikolaus Kopernikus; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance polymath, active as a mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic Church, Catholic cano ...
had proposed that all the planets orbited in circles around the sun, but his theory did not give very satisfactory predictions and was largely ignored. When Kepler studied his boss
Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe ( ; born Tyge Ottesen Brahe; generally called Tycho (14 December 154624 October 1601) was a Danish astronomer, known for his comprehensive astronomical observations, generally considered to be the most accurate of his time. He was k ...
's observations of Mars's position in the sky on many nights, Kepler realized that Mars's orbit could not be a circle. After years of analysis, Kepler discovered that Mars's orbit was likely to be an
ellipse
In mathematics, an ellipse is a plane curve surrounding two focus (geometry), focal points, such that for all points on the curve, the sum of the two distances to the focal points is a constant. It generalizes a circle, which is the special ty ...
, with the Sun at one of the ellipse's
focal points. This, in turn, led to Kepler's discovery that all planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one of the two focal points. This became the first of
Kepler's three laws of planetary motion.
Accuracy/predictability
From the perspective of all but the most demanding, the path of Mars is simple. An equation in ''Astronomical Algorithms'' that assumes an unperturbed elliptical orbit predicts the perihelion and aphelion times with an error of "a few hours". Using orbital elements to calculate those distances agrees to actual averages to at least five significant figures. Formulas for computing position straight from orbital elements typically do not provide or need corrections for the effects of other planets.
For a higher level of accuracy the perturbations of planets are required. These are well known, and are believed to be modeled well enough to achieve high accuracy. These are all of the bodies that need to be considered for even many demanding problems. When
Aldo Vitagliano
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{{disa ...
calculated the date of close Martian approaches in the distant past or future, he tested the potential effect caused by the uncertainties of the asteroid belt models by running the simulations both with and without the biggest three asteroids, and found the effects were negligible.
Observations are much better now, and space age technology has replaced the older techniques. E. Myles Standish wrote: "Classical ephemerides over the past centuries have been based entirely upon optical observations:almost exclusively, meridian circle transit timings. With the advent of planetary radar, spacecraft missions, VLBI, etc., the situation for the four inner planets has changed dramatically." (8.5.1 page 10) For DE405, created in 1995, optical observations were dropped and as he wrote "initial conditions for the inner four planets were adjusted to ranging data primarily…" The error in DE405 is known to be about 2 km and is now sub-kilometer.
Although the perturbations on Mars by asteroids have caused problems, they have also been used to estimate the masses of certain asteroids. But improving the model of the asteroid belt is of great concern to those requiring or attempting to provide the highest-accuracy ephemerides.
["The uncertainty in the Mars orbit for a one-year prediction is about 300 m, as required for the Mars Science Laboratory mission, but grows rapidly for times before and
after the spacecraft observation time span due to the influence of asteroids with orbits near that of Mars. The predicted orbit and uncertainty depend greatly on the asteroid model used. "]
Orbital parameters
No more than five
significant figures
Significant figures (also known as the significant digits, ''precision'' or ''resolution'') of a number in positional notation are digits in the number that are reliable and necessary to indicate the quantity of something.
If a number expre ...
are presented in the following table of Mars's
orbital elements
Orbital elements are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. In celestial mechanics these elements are considered in two-body systems using a Kepler orbit. There are many different ways to mathematically describe the same ...
. To this level of
precision
Precision, precise or precisely may refer to:
Science, and technology, and mathematics Mathematics and computing (general)
* Accuracy and precision, measurement deviation from true value and its scatter
* Significant figures, the number of digit ...
, the numbers match very well the VSOP87 elements and calculations derived from them, as well as Standish's (of JPL) 250-year best fit, and calculations using the actual positions of Mars over time.
References
{{Mars
Dynamics of the Solar System
Mars