''Peridinium'' is a genus of motile, marine and freshwater dinoflagellates. Their morphology is considered typical of the armoured dinoflagellates, and their form is commonly used in diagrams of a dinoflagellate's structure. ''Peridinium'' can range from 30 to 70 μm in diameter, and has very thick

theca In biology, a theca (plural thecae) is a sheath or a covering. Botany In botany, the theca is related to plant's flower anatomy. The theca of an angiosperm consists of a pair of microsporangia that are adjacent to each other and share a comm ...

l plates.

Morphology

''Peridinium'' is enclosed by cellulose

and with two flagellates. The composition of the theca is laminaribiose and laminaritriose linking by ''β'' – 1, 4 and ''β'' – 1, 3 linkages. The cell body of ''Peridinium'' is highly polarized and is distinguishable from apical and antapical sides or dorsal and ventral sides. Their theca is divided into epicone and hypocone by the middle region (also called girdle or cingulum). The flagellates have two different directions, one is surrounding the middle region while the other are in the longitudinal groove of hypocone. The chloroplast in ''Peridinium'' is triple membrane, and some plastid-derived organelles like

pyrenoid Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae,Giordano, M., Beardall, J., & Raven, J. A. (2005). CO2 concentrating mechanisms in algae: mechanisms, environmental modulation, and evolution. Annu. Rev. Plant Bio ...

or eyespot also. This provides the evidence that these organelles originated from secondary endosymbiosis. The inner membrane of mitochondrion is tubular.

Trichocyst A trichocyst is an organelle found in certain ciliates and dinoflagellate The dinoflagellates ( Greek δῖνος ''dinos'' "whirling" and Latin ''flagellum'' "whip, scourge") are a monophyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes constituting the ...

is a specialized organelle in dinoflagellate which help them defense to predators.

Life cycle

''Peridinium'' is a haplontic algae. Most time of ''Peridinium'' are haploid vegetative cells and undergoing asexual or sexual cycle. They only form zygote before dormancy. In asexual cycle, the haploid vegetative cell throws the theca before mitosis and produces two daughter cells by mitosis. During mitosis, the chromosome in their nucleus condenses but the nucleus of endosymbiont doesn’t. After the cleavage furrow starts to separate their nucleus, the nucleus of endosymbiont then passes through the gaps between cleavage furrow and their nucleus. Then the nucleus of endosymbiont was divided by cleavage furrow together. In sexual cycle, they produce gametes as

isogamete Isogamy is a form of sexual reproduction that involves gametes of the same morphology (indistinguishable in shape and size), found in most unicellular eukaryotes. Because both gametes look alike, they generally cannot be classified as male or fe ...

and the gametes fuse to form planozygotes to get dormancy. After dormancy, the zygote starts to undergo meiosis. The first meiosis produces a two diploid nuclei cell without cytokinesis. An asynchronized nucleus division then occurs in one of the two nuclei. One nucleus undergoing second meiosis before cytokinesis in first meiosis and turns into a trinucleate stage. After it, the cytokinesis of first meiosis is completed, and the trinucleate cell is divided into a diploid nucleus cell and a double haploid nuclei cell. When the cytokinesis of second meiosis is completed, finally, it produces four haploid daughter cells. Overall, ''Peridinium'' dominants in mobile haploid generation. Between spring and summer, the haploid venerative cells produce gametes by mitosis and fuse gametes into a diploid planozygote. The diploid planozygotes then transform into immobile hypnozygotes and deposit to get dormancy in winter. After a year, the hypnozygotes germinate in spring and release haploid vegetative cells.

Ecology

''Peridinium gatunense'' blooms in the Lake Kinneret in Israel which changing the color of the lake is discovered in 1960. The blooming event occurs because the organic mineral is flushed into the sea every year in spring. Organic mineral nourishes the diatom and increases their population. Thus, the planozygotes of ''Peridinium '' break dormancy and release thousands of vegetative cells into the sea by feeding on diatom. From 1960 to 1996, the annual pattern was regularly peaked at spring in each year. But starting from 1996, the blooming was broken. The break of blooming is related to high temperature, other phytoplanktonic competitor (''Chytrid'' or ''Microcystis''), and human activities in the aquatic system by managing the water flow of the river.

Species

Species include:M.D. Guiry in Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2018. AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=Se66edad67e72e87b ; searched on 19 August 2018. *'' Peridinium abscissum'' O.Zacharias *'' Peridinium achromaticum'' Levander *'' Peridinium acutangulum'' Lemmermann Lemmermann *'' Peridinium acutum'' G.Karsten *'' Peridinium adriaticum'' H.Broch *'' Peridinium aequalis'' W.S.Kent *'' Peridinium allorgei''

Lefèvre Lefèvre is a common family name derived from the original northern French surname Lefebvre. Common variations include Lefevre, LeFevre, Le Fevre, le Fevre, Le Fèvre, le Fèvre, LeFever, Lefevere, Le Fêvre and le Fêvre. Surnames Lefèvre * Lef� ...

*'' Peridinium ampulliforme'' E.J.F.Wood *'' Peridinium andrzejowskii'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium annulatum'' C.A.Kofoid & J.R.Michener *'' Peridinium anserinum'' Baumeister *'' Peridinium aspinum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium assymmetricum'' L.A.Mangin C.E.H.Ostenfeld *'' Peridinium asymmetrica'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium asymmetricum'' G.Karsten *'' Peridinium baliense'' E.R.Lindemann *'' Peridinium basilium'' W.S.Drugg *'' Peridinium belgicum'' A.Wulff *'' Peridinium bicorne'' L.K.Schmarda *'' Peridinium bidens'' Lemmermann *'' Peridinium bimucronatum'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium bipes''

Stein Stein is a German, Yiddish and Norwegian word meaning "stone" and "pip" or "kernel". It stems from the same Germanic root as the English word stone. It may refer to: Places In Austria * Stein, a neighbourhood of Krems an der Donau, Lower Aust ...

*'' Peridinium brasiliense'' G.Borics & I.Grigorszky *'' Peridinium callosum'' E.H.Jörgensen *'' Peridinium carinatum'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium caspicum'' C.E.H.Ostenfeld Lemmermann *'' Peridinium castaneiforme'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium cavispinum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium centenniale'' Playfair M.Lefèvre *'' Peridinium chattoni'' B.Biecheler *'' Peridinium chattonii'' Biecheler *'' Peridinium chilophaenum'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium chinense'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium cinctum'' O.F.Müller Ehrenberg - type *'' Peridinium comatum'' P.Morgenroth *'' Peridinium complanatum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium complanatum'' G.Karsten *'' Peridinium corniculum'' Kofoid & Michener *'' Peridinium crassipyrum'' Balech *'' Peridinium cucumis'' G.H.Wailes *'' Peridinium cuneatum'' A.C.J.Goor *'' Peridinium cypripedium'' H.J.Clark *'' Peridinium cystiferum'' Pavillard *'' Peridinium dakariensis'' P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium dalei'' Indel.& Loeblich Balech *'' Peridinium deficiens'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium delitiense'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium dentatum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium diamantum'' D.M.Churchill & W.A.S.Sarjeant *'' Peridinium digitale'' C.-H.-G.Pouchet Lemmermann *'' Peridinium diplopsalioides'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium disciforme'' A.Cleve *'' Peridinium ellipsoideum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium ellipsoideum'' P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium eocenicum'' I.C.Cookson & A.Eisenack *'' Peridinium excavatum'' G.W.Martin *'' Peridinium exiguipes'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium exiguum'' P.T.Cleve *'' Peridinium formosum'' Pavillard *'' Peridinium galeatum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium garderae'' Balech *'' Peridinium gargantua'' Biecheler *'' Peridinium gatunense'' Nygaard *'' Peridinium geminum'' Playfair *'' Peridinium gemma'' A.Cleve *'' Peridinium globifera'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium godlewskii'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium goslaviense'' Wolszynska *'' Peridinium gracile'' Gran & Braarud *'' Peridinium gracile'' Meunier *'' Peridinium grani'' C.E.H.Ostenfeld *'' Peridinium granisparsum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium granulosum'' Playfair *'' Peridinium gravidum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium grenlandicum'' J.Woloszynska *'' Peridinium gutwinskii'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium gymnodinium'' Pénard Entz *'' Peridinium helix'' Balech *'' Peridinium hemisphaericum'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium herbaceum'' F.Schütt *'' Peridinium heteracanthum'' P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium hirobis'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium horridissimum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium horridum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium huberi'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium hyalinum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium hyalinum'' C.A.Kofoid & J.R.Michener *'' Peridinium illustrans'' O.C.A.Wetzel *'' Peridinium imperfectum'' G.A.Klebs *'' Peridinium inaequale'' Fauré-Fremiet *'' Peridinium inaequale'' N.Peters *'' Peridinium inclinatum'' Balech *'' Peridinium inconspicuum-contactum'' E.Lindemann F.Ruttner *'' Peridinium inflatiforme'' A.Böhm *'' Peridinium intermedium'' A.Candeias *'' Peridinium intermedium'' Playfair Playfair *'' Peridinium jensenii'' Nygaard Nygaard *'' Peridinium jenzschii'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium kansanum'' P.Tasch *'' Peridinium karianum'' A.F.Meunier J.Schiller *'' Peridinium karianum'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium karstenii'' Kofoid & Michener *'' Peridinium keyense'' Nygaard *'' Peridinium knipowitzschii'' Ussatschew *'' Peridinium kofoidii'' Fauré-Fremiet *'' Peridinium koma'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium lambdoideum'' E.Nagy *'' Peridinium laticeps'' J.Gröntved & G.Seidenfaden *'' Peridinium latipyrum'' Balech *'' Peridinium lenticulare'' E.H.Jörgensen *'' Peridinium lenticulatum'' Fauré-Fremiet *'' Peridinium levanderi'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium limbatum'' Stokes Lemmermann *'' Peridinium lingii'' Thomasson *'' Peridinium lithanthracis'' Ehrenberg Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium loeblichii'' E.R.Cox & H.J.Arnott Dale *'' Peridinium longicollum'' Pavillard *'' Peridinium longirostrum'' A.Cleve *'' Peridinium longispinum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium lucina'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium macrapicatum'' Balech *'' Peridinium macrospinum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium majus'' P.A.Dangeard P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium manginii'' Ostenfeld *'' Peridinium marinum'' E.Lindemann *'' Peridinium matzenaueri'' K.R.Gaarder *'' Peridinium melaphyri'' Jenzsch Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium meunieri'' N.Peters *'' Peridinium micrapium'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium minsculum'' Pavillard *'' Peridinium minus'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium minus'' O.W.Paulsen O.W.Paulsen *'' Peridinium minusculum'' Pavillard *'' Peridinium minutissimum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium mixtum'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium monacanthum'' Broch Balech *'' Peridinium monoceros'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium morzinense''

*'' Peridinium multipunctatum'' Fauré-Fremiet *'' Peridinium mutsui'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium nanum'' Balech *'' Peridinium nasutum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium neglectum'' V.Hensen) *'' Peridinium nivale'' A.F.Meunier J.Schiller *'' Peridinium nodulosum'' C.A.Kofoid & J.R.Michener *'' Peridinium norpacense'' Balech *'' Peridinium novum'' Chodat *'' Peridinium novum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium nux'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium oamaruense'' Deflandre Schiller *'' Peridinium obesum'' Matzenauer *'' Peridinium obliquiforme'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium obliquum'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium obliquum'' P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium obtusipes'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium oculatum''

Dujardin Dujardin is a French surname, meaning "from the garden", and may refer to: * Charlotte Dujardin, British dressage rider * Édouard Dujardin, French writer * Félix Dujardin (1801–1860), French biologist * Jean Dujardin, French actor and comedia ...

*'' Peridinium oculatum'' F.Stein J.Woloszynska *'' Peridinium okamurae'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium ovale'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium pacificum'' Kofoid & Michener *'' Peridinium paleocenicum'' I.C.Cookson & A.Eisenack *'' Peridinium parainerme'' D.S.Nie & C.C.Wang *'' Peridinium parallelum'' Brock *'' Peridinium parapentagonum''

Wang Wang may refer to: Names * Wang (surname) (王), a common Chinese surname * Wāng (汪), a less common Chinese surname * Titles in Chinese nobility * A title in Korean nobility * A title in Mongolian nobility Places * Wang River in Thai ...

*'' Peridinium parapyriforme'' J.Hermosilla *'' Peridinium peisonis'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium perbreve'' Balech & S.O.Soares *'' Peridinium perhorridum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium perminutum'' A.Cleve *'' Peridinium perrieri'' Fauré-Fremiet *'' Peridinium persicum'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium petersi'' Balech *'' Peridinium pietschmanni'' A.Böhm *'' Peridinium pilula'' Ostenfeld Lemmermann *'' Peridinium planulum'' J.A.M.Perty *'' Peridinium playfairi'' E.Lindemann *'' Peridinium playfairii'' E.R.Lindemann *'' Peridinium pleum'' P.Tasch *'' Peridinium polymorphum'' E.Lindemann *'' Peridinium ponticum'' D.Wall & B.Dale *'' Peridinium porosum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium pouchetii'' Kofoid & Michener *'' Peridinium priscum'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium privum'' O.E.Imhof *'' Peridinium pseudo-intermedium'' Couté & A.Iltis *'' Peridinium pseudo-laeve'' M.Lefèvre *'' Peridinium pseudoantarcticum'' Balech *'' Peridinium pseudograni'' N.Peters *'' Peridinium pseudonoctiluca'' C.-H.-G.Pouchet C.-H.-G.Pouchet *'' Peridinium pseudopallidum'' N.Peters *'' Peridinium pulchellum'' G.Karsten *'' Peridinium pulchrum'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium quadricorne'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium quadridentatum'' F.Stein Gert Hansen *'' Peridinium raciborskii'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium rampii'' Balech *'' Peridinium resistente'' P.Morgenroth *'' Peridinium rhombus'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium robustum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium rubrum'' L.S.Cienkowski *'' Peridinium saecularis'' G.Murray & F.G.Whitting C.E.H.Ostenfeld *'' Peridinium scallense'' E.Lindemann *'' Peridinium schilleri'' A.Böhm *'' Peridinium schuettii'' Lemmermann G.Karsten *'' Peridinium seebergi'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium sibiricum'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium simplex'' Gran & Braarud *'' Peridinium smirnovii'' Skvortzov *'' Peridinium sociale'' L.-F.Henneguy B.Biecheler *'' Peridinium solidum'' A.Cleve *'' Peridinium speciosum'' E.H.Jörgensen *'' Peridinium sphaericum'' A.F.Meunier *'' Peridinium sphaericum'' G.Murray & F.G.Whitting *'' Peridinium sphaericum'' K.Okamura *'' Peridinium spheroidea'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium spheroides'' P.A.Dangeard *'' Peridinium spinosum'' J.Schiller *'' Peridinium spirale'' Gaarder Balech *'' Peridinium striatum'' A.Böhm *'' Peridinium striolatum'' Playfair *'' Peridinium subtatranum'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium sydneyense'' Thomasson *'' Peridinium symmetricum''

Halim Halim or Haleem ( ar, حليم ) is an Arabic masculine given name which means gentle, forbearing, mild, patient, understanding, indulgent, slow to anger.Golziher, Ignaz, ''Muslim Studies'', ed. S.M. Stern (Albany: State University of New York Pr ...

*'' Peridinium tabulatum'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium tassellatum'' G.Karsten *'' Peridinium tenuicorne'' L.A.Mangin *'' Peridinium tenuissimum'' C.A.Kofoid *'' Peridinium tetraceros'' v. Strampff *'' Peridinium thuringiae'' Jenzsch Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium toali'' A.Henckel *'' Peridinium tomnickii'' J.Woloszynska *'' Peridinium treubi'' J.Woloszynska *'' Peridinium tricuspis'' O.C.A.Wetzel *'' Peridinium tridens'' Ehrenberg *'' Peridinium triqueta'' F.Stein Lebour *'' Peridinium tristylum'' F.Stein *'' Peridinium truncatum'' O.Zacharias *'' Peridinium truncus'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium tsingtaoense'' D.S.Nie & C.C.Wang *'' Peridinium uberrimum'' G.J.Allman *'' Peridinium uliginosum'' J.Schiller J.Woloszynska *'' Peridinium umbo'' L.G.Sjöstedt *'' Peridinium umbonatum'' Karsten *'' Peridinium venter'' V.Hensen *'' Peridinium ventricum'' T.H.Abé *'' Peridinium ventriosum'' O.C.A.Wetzel *'' Peridinium vexans'' G.Murray & F.G.Whitting *'' Peridinium volkii'' Lemmermann *'' Peridinium volzi'' Lemmermann *'' Peridinium volzii'' Lemmermann *'' Peridinium volzii'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium vorticella'' F.Stein *'' Peridinium wiezejski'' Woloszynska *'' Peridinium willei'' Huitfeldt-Kaas *'' Peridinium witoslawii'' E.Lindemann *'' Peridinium woloszynskae'' W.Conrad *'' Peridinium yonedae'' Abé

References

Dinoflagellate genera Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg {{dinoflagellate-stub