Penutian is a proposed grouping of
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in hi ...
that includes many
Native American languages of western
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, predominantly spoken at one time in
British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
,
Washington
Washington commonly refers to:
* Washington (state), United States
* Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States
** A metonym for the federal government of the United States
** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
,
Oregon
Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
, and
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
. The existence of a Penutian stock or phylum has been the subject of debate among specialists. Even the unity of some of its component families has been disputed. Some of the problems in the comparative study of languages within the phylum are the result of their early extinction and limited documentation.
Some of the more recently proposed subgroupings of Penutian have been convincingly demonstrated. The Miwokan and the Costanoan languages have been grouped into an
Utian
Utian (also Miwok–Costanoan, previously Mutsun) is a family of indigenous languages spoken in Northern California, United States. The Miwok and Ohlone peoples both spoke languages of the Utian language family. It has recently been argued tha ...
language family by
Catherine Callaghan. Callaghan has more recently provided evidence supporting a grouping of Utian and
Yokutsan into a
Yok-Utian
Yok-Utian is a proposed language family of California. It consists of the Yokuts language and the Utian language family.
While connections between Yokuts and Utian languages were noticed through attempts to reconstruct their proto-languages in 1 ...
family. There also seems to be convincing evidence for the
Plateau Penutian
Plateau Penutian (also Shahapwailutan, Lepitan) is a family of languages spoken in northern California, reaching through central-western Oregon to northern Washington and central-northern Idaho.
Family division
Plateau Penutian consists of four ...
grouping (originally named ''Shahapwailutan'' by J. N. B. Hewitt and
John Wesley Powell
John Wesley Powell (March 24, 1834 – September 23, 1902) was an American geologist, U.S. Army soldier, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He ...
in 1894) which would consist of
Klamath–Modoc,
Molala
The Molala (also Molale, Molalla, Molele) are a people of the Plateau culture area in the Oregon Cascades and central Oregon, United States. They are one of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon, with 141 of the 882 member ...
, and the
Sahaptian languages
Sahaptian (also Sahaptianic, Sahaptin, Shahaptian) is a two-language branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native American peoples in the Columbia Plateau region of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho in the northwestern United States.
The ...
(
Nez Percé and
Sahaptin
The Sahaptin are a number of Native American tribes who speak dialects of the Sahaptin language. The Sahaptin tribes inhabited territory along the Columbia River and its tributaries in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Sahaptin-s ...
).
History of the hypothesis
Etymology and pronunciation
The name ''Penutian'' is based on the words meaning "two" in the
Wintuan
The Wintun are members of several related Native American peoples of Northern California, including the Wintu (northern), Nomlaki (central), and Patwin (southern).Pritzker, 152[Maiduan
Maiduan (also Maidun, Pujunan) is a small endangered language, endangered language family of northeastern California.
Family division
The Maiduan consists of 4 languages:
# Maidu language, Maidu ''†'' (also known as Maidu proper, Northeaste ...]
, and
Yokutsan languages
Yokuts, formerly known as Mariposa, is an endangered language spoken in the interior of Northern and Central California in and around the San Joaquin Valley by the Yokuts people. The speakers of Yokuts were severely affected by disease, missio ...
(which is pronounced something like ) and the
Utian languages
Utian (also Miwok–Costanoan, previously Mutsun) is a family of indigenous languages spoken in Northern California, United States. The Miwok and Ohlone peoples both spoke languages of the Utian language family. It has recently been argued th ...
(which is pronounced something like ).
Although perhaps originally intended to be pronounced , which is indicated in some dictionaries, the term is pronounced by most if not all linguists.
Initial concept of five core families
The original Penutian hypothesis, offered in 1913 by
Roland B. Dixon and
Alfred L. Kroeber
Alfred Louis Kroeber (June 11, 1876 – October 5, 1960) was an American cultural anthropologist. He received his PhD under Franz Boas at Columbia University in 1901, the first doctorate in anthropology awarded by Columbia. He was also the first ...
, was based on similarities observed between five California language families listed below.
#
Maiduan languages
Maiduan (also Maidun, Pujunan) is a small endangered language, endangered language family of northeastern California.
Family division
The Maiduan consists of 4 languages:
# Maidu language, Maidu ''†'' (also known as Maidu proper, Northeaste ...
#
Miwok
The Miwok (also spelled Miwuk, Mi-Wuk, or Me-Wuk) are members of four linguistically related Native American groups indigenous to what is now Northern California, who traditionally spoke one of the Miwok languages in the Utian family. The word ...
#
Costanoan languages
The Ohlone, formerly known as Costanoans (from Spanish meaning 'coast dweller'), are a Native American people of the Northern California coast. When Spanish explorers and missionaries arrived in the late 18th century, the Ohlone inhabited the ...
#
Wintuan languages
Wintuan (also Wintun, Wintoon, Copeh, Copehan) is a family of languages spoken in the Sacramento Valley of central Northern California.
All Wintuan languages are either extinct or severely endangered.
Classification
Family division
Shipley ...
#
Yokutsan languages
Yokuts, formerly known as Mariposa, is an endangered language spoken in the interior of Northern and Central California in and around the San Joaquin Valley by the Yokuts people. The speakers of Yokuts were severely affected by disease, missio ...
That original proposal has since been called alternately ''Core Penutian'', ''California Penutian'', or the ''Penutian Kernel''. In 1919 the same two authors published their linguistic evidence for the proposal. The grouping, like many of Dixon & Kroeber's other phylum proposals, was based mostly on shared typological characteristics and not the standard methods used to determine genetic relationships. Starting from this early date, the Penutian hypothesis was controversial.
Prior to the 1913 Penutian proposal of Dixon and Kroeber,
Albert S. Gatschet had grouped Miwokan and Costanoan into a ''Mutsun'' group (1877). That grouping, now termed
Utian
Utian (also Miwok–Costanoan, previously Mutsun) is a family of indigenous languages spoken in Northern California, United States. The Miwok and Ohlone peoples both spoke languages of the Utian language family. It has recently been argued tha ...
, was later conclusively demonstrated by
Catherine Callaghan. In 1903 Dixon & Kroeber noted a "positive relationship" among Costanoan, Maidu, Wintun, and Yokuts within a "Central or Maidu Type", from which they excluded Miwokan (their Moquelumnan). In 1910 Kroeber finally recognized the close relationship between the
Miwok
The Miwok (also spelled Miwuk, Mi-Wuk, or Me-Wuk) are members of four linguistically related Native American groups indigenous to what is now Northern California, who traditionally spoke one of the Miwok languages in the Utian family. The word ...
an and
Costanoan languages
The Ohlone, formerly known as Costanoans (from Spanish meaning 'coast dweller'), are a Native American people of the Northern California coast. When Spanish explorers and missionaries arrived in the late 18th century, the Ohlone inhabited the ...
.
Sapir's expansion
In 1916
Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American Jewish anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States.
Sap ...
expanded Dixon and Kroeber's California Penutian family with a sister stock,
Oregon Penutian, which included the Coosan languages and also the
isolates {{About, , the linguistics term dealing with languages unrelated to any other language in the world, Language isolate, other uses, Isolate (disambiguation){{!Isolate
Isolates is a term used in developmental psychology and family studies, to describ ...
Siuslaw and Takelma:
:* ''Oregon Penutian''
:**
Coosan languages
The Coosan (also Coos or Kusan) language family consists of two languages spoken along the southern Oregon coast. Both languages are now extinct.
Classification
* Hanis ''†''
* Miluk ''†'' ( Lower Coquille)
Melville Jacobs (1939) says tha ...
:**
Siuslaw
:**
Takelma
The Takelma (also Dagelma) are a Native American people who originally lived in the Rogue Valley of interior southwestern Oregon.
Most of their villages were sited along the Rogue River. The name ''Takelma'' means "(Those) Along the River".
His ...
Later Sapir and
Leo Frachtenberg
Leo Joachim Frachtenberg (February 24, 1883 – November 26, 1930) was an anthropologist who studied Native American languages
Over a thousand indigenous languages are spoken by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. These languages cann ...
added the
Kalapuyan and the
Chinookan languages
The Chinookan languages were a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples. Although the last known native speaker of any Chinookan language died in 2012, the 2009-2013 American Community ...
and then later the
Alsean and
Tsimshianic
The Tsimshianic languages are a family of languages spoken in northwestern British Columbia and in Southeast Alaska on Annette Island and Ketchikan. All Tsimshianic languages are endangered, some with only around 400 speakers. Only around 2,170 ...
families, culminating in Sapir's four-branch classification (Sapir 1921a:60):
: I. ''California Penutian grouping''
::# Maiduan
(Maidu)
::# Utian
(Miwok–Costanoan)
::# Wintuan
(Wintu)
::# Yokutsan
(Yokuts)
: II. ''Oregon Penutian grouping''
::# Coosan
(Coos)
::# Siuslaw
::# Takelma
::#
Kalapuyan (Kalapuya)
::#
Alsean (Yakonan)
: III. ''
Chinookan
The Chinookan languages were a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples. Although the last known native speaker of any Chinookan language died in 2012, the 2009-2013 American Community ...
family''
(Chinook)
: IV. ''
Tsimshianic
The Tsimshianic languages are a family of languages spoken in northwestern British Columbia and in Southeast Alaska on Annette Island and Ketchikan. All Tsimshianic languages are endangered, some with only around 400 speakers. Only around 2,170 ...
family''
(Tsimshian)
By the time Sapir's 1929 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' article was published, he had added two more branches:
:* ''
Plateau Penutian
Plateau Penutian (also Shahapwailutan, Lepitan) is a family of languages spoken in northern California, reaching through central-western Oregon to northern Washington and central-northern Idaho.
Family division
Plateau Penutian consists of four ...
family''
:**
Klamath–Modoc (Lutuami)
:** Waiilatpuan
:***
Cayuse
:***
Molala
The Molala (also Molale, Molalla, Molele) are a people of the Plateau culture area in the Oregon Cascades and central Oregon, United States. They are one of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon, with 141 of the 882 member ...
:**
Sahaptian
Sahaptian (also Sahaptianic, Sahaptin, Shahaptian) is a two-language branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native Americans in the United States, Native American peoples in the Columbia Plateau region of Washington (state), Washington, ...
(Sahaptin)
:* ''Mexican Penutian grouping''
:**
Mixe–Zoque
:**
Huave
resulting in a six-branch family:
# California Penutian
# Oregon Penutian
# Chinookan
# Tsimshianic
# Plateau Penutian
# Mexican Penutian
(Sapir's full 1929 classification scheme including the Penutian proposal can be seen here: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas#Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica.)
Further expansions
Other linguists have suggested other languages be included within the Penutian grouping:
* Macro-Penutian hypothesis (
Benjamin Whorf
Benjamin Lee Whorf (; April 24, 1897 – July 26, 1941) was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer. He is known for "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis," the idea that differences between the structures of different languages shape how thei ...
)
Or have produced hypotheses of relationships between Penutian and other large-scale families:
*
Amerind hypothesis (
Joseph Greenberg
Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915 – May 7, 2001) was an American linguist, known mainly for his work concerning linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages.
Life Early life and education
Joseph Greenberg was born on ...
)
Note: Some linguists link the Penutian hypothesis to the
Zuni language
Zuni (also formerly Zuñi, endonym ''Shiwiʼma'') is a language of the Zuni people, indigenous to western New Mexico and eastern Arizona in the United States. It is spoken by around 9,500 people, especially in the vicinity of Zuni Pueblo, New ...
. This link, proposed by Stanley Newman, is now generally rejected, and may have even been intended as a hoax by Newman.
Mid-twentieth century doubts
Scholars in the mid-twentieth century became concerned that similarities among the proposed Penutian language families may be the result of borrowing that occurred among neighboring peoples, not of a shared proto-language in the distant past.
Mary Haas
Mary Rosamond Haas (January 23, 1910 – May 17, 1996) was an American linguist who specialized in North American Indian languages, Thai, and historical linguistics. She served as president of the Linguistic Society of America. She was elected ...
states the following regarding this borrowing:
Even where genetic relationship is clearly indicated ... the evidence of diffusion of traits from neighboring tribes, related or not, is seen on every hand. This makes the task of determining the validity of the various alleged Hokan languages
The Hokan language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families that were spoken mainly in California, Arizona and Baja California.
Etymology
The name ''Hokan'' is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan ...
and the various alleged Penutian languages all the more difficult ... ndpoint up once again that diffusional studies are just as important for prehistory as genetic studies and what is even more in need of emphasis, it points up the desirability of pursuing diffusional studies along with genetic studies. This is nowhere more necessary than in the case of the Hokan and Penutian languages wherever they may be found, but particularly in California where they may very well have existed side by side for many millennia.(Haas 1976:359)
Despite the concern of Haas and others, the Consensus Classification produced at a 1964 conference in
Bloomington, Indiana
Bloomington is a city in and the county seat of Monroe County, Indiana, Monroe County in the central region of the U.S. state of Indiana. It is the List of municipalities in Indiana, seventh-largest city in Indiana and the fourth-largest outside ...
, retained all of Sapir's groups for North America north of Mexico within the Penutian Phylum. The opposite approach was taken following a 1976 conference at
Oswego, New York, when Campbell and Mithun dismissed the Penutian phylum as undemonstrated in their resulting classification of North American language families.
Recent hypotheses
Consensus was reached at a 1994 workshop on Comparative Penutian at the
University of Oregon
The University of Oregon (UO, U of O or Oregon) is a public research university in Eugene, Oregon. Founded in 1876, the institution is well known for its strong ties to the sports apparel and marketing firm Nike, Inc, and its co-founder, billion ...
that the families within the proposed phylum's California, Oregon, Plateau, and Chinookan clusters would eventually be shown to be genetically related. Subsequently,
Marie-Lucie Tarpent
Marie-Lucie Tarpent (born November 9, 1941) is a French-born Canadian linguist, formerly an associate professor of linguistics and French at Mount Saint Vincent University SVU Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. She is known for her descriptive work on ...
reassessed
Tsimshianic
The Tsimshianic languages are a family of languages spoken in northwestern British Columbia and in Southeast Alaska on Annette Island and Ketchikan. All Tsimshianic languages are endangered, some with only around 400 speakers. Only around 2,170 ...
, a geographically isolated family in northern British Columbia, and concluded that its affiliation within Penutian is also probable.
Earlier groupings, such as California Penutian and
Takelma–Kalapuyan ("Takelman") are no longer accepted as valid nodes by many Penutian researchers. However, Plateau Penutian, Coast Oregon Penutian, and
Yok-Utian
Yok-Utian is a proposed language family of California. It consists of the Yokuts language and the Utian language family.
While connections between Yokuts and Utian languages were noticed through attempts to reconstruct their proto-languages in 1 ...
(comprising the
Utian
Utian (also Miwok–Costanoan, previously Mutsun) is a family of indigenous languages spoken in Northern California, United States. The Miwok and Ohlone peoples both spoke languages of the Utian language family. It has recently been argued tha ...
and
Yokutsan languages
Yokuts, formerly known as Mariposa, is an endangered language spoken in the interior of Northern and Central California in and around the San Joaquin Valley by the Yokuts people. The speakers of Yokuts were severely affected by disease, missio ...
) are increasingly supported.
Scott DeLancey suggests the following relationships within and among language families typically assigned to the Penutian phylum:
*Maritime Penutian
**
Tsimshian
The Tsimshian (; tsi, Ts’msyan or Tsm'syen) are an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their communities are mostly in coastal British Columbia in Terrace, British Columbia, Terr ...
**
Chinook
**
Coast Oregon Penutian
***
Alsea
The Alsea are a Native American tribe of Western Oregon. They are (since 1856), confederated with other Tribes on the Siletz Reservation, Oregon, and are members of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz.
Their origin story says that the Yaquina, Al ...
***
Siuslaw
***
Coos
*Inland Penutian
**
Yok-Utian
Yok-Utian is a proposed language family of California. It consists of the Yokuts language and the Utian language family.
While connections between Yokuts and Utian languages were noticed through attempts to reconstruct their proto-languages in 1 ...
(from the
Great Basin
The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic basin, endorheic watersheds, those with no outlets, in North America. It spans nearly all of Nevada, much of Utah, and portions of California, Idaho, Oregon, Wyoming, and Baja California ...
)
***
Utian
Utian (also Miwok–Costanoan, previously Mutsun) is a family of indigenous languages spoken in Northern California, United States. The Miwok and Ohlone peoples both spoke languages of the Utian language family. It has recently been argued tha ...
***
Yokuts
The Yokuts (previously known as MariposasPowell, 1891:90–91.) are an ethnic group of Native Americans native to central California. Before European contact, the Yokuts consisted of up to 60 tribes speaking several related languages. ''Yokuts ...
**
Maidu
The Maidu are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of northern California. They reside in the central Sierra Nevada (U.S.), Sierra Nevada, in the watershed area of the Feather River, Feather and American River, American ...
(from the Great Basin or Oregon)
**
Plateau Penutian
Plateau Penutian (also Shahapwailutan, Lepitan) is a family of languages spoken in northern California, reaching through central-western Oregon to northern Washington and central-northern Idaho.
Family division
Plateau Penutian consists of four ...
***
Sahaptian
Sahaptian (also Sahaptianic, Sahaptin, Shahaptian) is a two-language branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native Americans in the United States, Native American peoples in the Columbia Plateau region of Washington (state), Washington, ...
***
Molala
The Molala (also Molale, Molalla, Molele) are a people of the Plateau culture area in the Oregon Cascades and central Oregon, United States. They are one of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon, with 141 of the 882 member ...
***
Klamath Klamath may refer to:
Ethnic groups
*Klamath people, a Native American people of California and Oregon
**Klamath Tribes, a federally recognized group of tribes in Oregon
*Klamath language, spoken by the Klamath people
Places in the United States
* ...
The
Wintuan languages
Wintuan (also Wintun, Wintoon, Copeh, Copehan) is a family of languages spoken in the Sacramento Valley of central Northern California.
All Wintuan languages are either extinct or severely endangered.
Classification
Family division
Shipley ...
,
Takelma
The Takelma (also Dagelma) are a Native American people who originally lived in the Rogue Valley of interior southwestern Oregon.
Most of their villages were sited along the Rogue River. The name ''Takelma'' means "(Those) Along the River".
His ...
, and
Kalapuya
The Kalapuya are a Native American people, which had eight independent groups speaking three mutually intelligible dialects. The Kalapuya tribes' traditional homelands were the Willamette Valley of present-day western Oregon in the United Sta ...
, absent from this list, continue to be considered Penutian languages by most scholars familiar with the subject, often in an Oregonian branch, though Takelma and Kalapuya are no longer considered to define a branch of Penutian.
A lexicostatistical classification and list of probable Penutian cognates has also been proposed by Zhivlov (2014).
Evidence for the Penutian hypothesis
Perhaps because many Penutian languages have
ablaut
In linguistics, the Indo-European ablaut (, from German '' Ablaut'' ) is a system of apophony (regular vowel variations) in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE).
An example of ablaut in English is the strong verb ''sing, sang, sung'' and its ...
, vowels are difficult to reconstruct. However, consonant correspondences are common. For example, the proto-Yokuts (Inland Penutian)
retroflexes correspond to Klamath (Plateau Penutian) , whereas the Proto-Yokuts dental correspond to Klamath alveolar . Kalapuya, Takelma, and Wintu do not show such obvious connections.
Below are some Penutian sound correspondence proposed by
William Shipley
William Shipley (baptised: 2 June 1715 – 28 December 1803) was an English drawing master, social reformer and inventor who, in 1754, founded an arts society in London that became The Royal Society of Arts, or Royal Society for the Encourage ...
, cited in Campbell (1997).
[Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America'', pg. 314. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .]
::California Penutian and Klamath Sound Correspondences
See also
*
Hokan languages
The Hokan language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families that were spoken mainly in California, Arizona and Baja California.
Etymology
The name ''Hokan'' is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan ...
*
Macro-Mayan languages
Macro-Mayan is a proposal linking the clearly established Mayan languages, Mayan family with neighboring families that show similarities to Mayan. The term was apparently coined by McQuown (1942), but suggestions for historical relationships relev ...
Notes
References
*
*
* Callaghan, Catherine. (1997). Evidence for Yok-Utian. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', pages 18–64
* Callaghan, Catherine. (2001). More evidence for Yok-Utian: A reanalysis of the Dixon and Kroeber sets ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''67'' (3), pages 313–346
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* DeLancey, Scott; & Golla, Victor. (1997). The Penutian hypothesis: Retrospect and prospect. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', 171–202
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1903). The native languages of California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''5'', 1–26
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913a). New linguistic families in California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''15'', 647–655
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913b). Relationship of the Indian languages of California. ''Science'', ''37'', 225
* Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1919). ''Linguistic families of California'' (pp. 47–118) Berkeley: University of California
* Goddard, Ives. (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America" In ''Languages'', Ives Goddard, ed., pp. 290–324. Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 17, W. C. Sturtevant, general ed. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
* Golla, Victor. (2007). "Linguistic Prehistory" in ''California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity'', pp. 71–82. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York: Altamira Press.
* Golla, Victor. (2011). ''California Indian Languages''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Grant, Anthony. (1997). Coast Oregon Penutian. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''63'', 144–156
* Kroeber, Alfred L. (1910). The Chumash and Costanoan languages. ''University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology'', ''9'', 259–263
* Liedtke, Stefan. (1995). ''Wakashan, Salishan and Penutian and Wider Connections Cognate Sets. Linguistic data on diskette series, no. 09. Munich: Lincom Europa, z\v1995''.
* Liedtke, Stefan. (2007).''The Relationship of Wintuan to Plateau Penutian''. LINCOM studies in Native American linguistics, 55. Munich: Lincom Europa.
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); .
* Sapir, Edward. (1921a)
A Characteristic Penutian Form of Stem.''International Journal of American Linguistics'', 2(1/2): 58–67
* Sapir, Edward. (1921b). A bird's-eye view of American languages north of Mexico. ''Science'', ''54'', 408
* Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (14th ed.; Vol. 5; pp. 138–141)
* Sutton, Imre, (2002) "The Ob-Ugrian/Cal-Ugrian Connection: Rediscovering 'The Discovery of California"", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,26(4): 113–120
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1996). Reattaching Tsimshianic to Penutian. ''Survey of California and Other Indian Languages'' 9:91–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie. (1997). Tsimshianic and Penutian: problems, methods, results, and implications. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 63:65–112
* Tarpent, Marie-Lucie & Daythal Kendall. (1998). "On the relationship between Takelma and Kalapuyan: another look at 'Takelman'. Paper presented to the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas: Annual Meeting, Linguistic Society of America, New York
*
Von Sadovszky, Otto J., (1996) The Discovery of California: A Cal-Ugrian Comparative Study, Istor Books 3 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiadó and Los Angeles: International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research)
External links
Penutian (Scott DeLancey's site)(has online papers)
*
*
*
ttp://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/lang.html Tribal Language Groups of Northern and Central California*
California Tribal Linguistics Groups map (.gif)*
California Indian Tribal Groups Map (.gif)(map after Kroeber)
Mitochondrial DNA and Prehistoric Settlements: Native Migrations on the Western Edge of North America
{{DEFAULTSORT:Penutian Languages
Indigenous languages of California
Indigenous languages of the Pacific Northwest Coast
Indigenous languages of the North American Plateau
Proposed language families