Penultimate Rule

Latin phonology continually evolved over the centuries, making it difficult for speakers in one era to know how Latin was spoken before then. A given phoneme may be represented by different letters in different periods. This article deals primarily with modern scholarship's best reconstruction of Classical Latin's phonemes (phonology) and the pronunciation and spelling used by educated people in the late Roman Republic. This article then touches upon later changes and other variants. Knowledge of how Latin was pronounced comes from Roman grammar books, common misspellings by Romans, transcriptions into other ancient languages, and from how pronunciation has evolved in derived Romance languages.

Latin orthography is the spelling of Latin words written in the scripts of all historical phases of Latin from Old Latin to the present. All scripts use the Latin alphabet, but conventional spellings may vary from phase to phase. The Latin alphabet was adapted from the Old Italic script to represent the phonemes of the Latin language. The Old Italic script had in turn been borrowed from the Greek alphabet, itself adapted from the Phoenician alphabet. The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet around 540 BC, as it appears on the black-figure pottery of the time.

Letterforms

The forms of the Latin alphabet used during the Classical period did not distinguish between upper case and lower case. Roman inscriptions typically use Roman square capitals, which resemble modern capitals, and handwritten text often uses old Roman cursive, which includes letterforms similar to modern lowercase.

Letters and phonemes

In ancient Latin spelling, individual letters mostly corresponded to individual phonemes, with three main exceptions:
# The vowel letters ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'', ''y'' represented both short and long vowels. The long vowels were often marked by apices during the Classical period ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩, and long i was written using a taller version ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩; but now long vowels are sometimes written with a macron in modern editions (''ā''), while short vowels are marked with a breve (''ă'') in dictionaries when necessary.
# Some pairs of vowel letters, such as ''ae'', represented either a diphthong in one syllable or two vowels in adjacent syllables.
# The letters ''i'' and ''u (v)'' represented either the close vowels and or the semivowels and .

In the tables below, Latin letters and digraphs are paired with the phonemes that they usually represent in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Consonants

This is a table of the consonant phonemes of Classical Latin. Those in parentheses have a debatable status as phonemes, and those marked with an asterisk are only found in Greek loanwords in educated pronunciation, except for some instances of /kʰ/. See below for further details.

Notes on phonetics

* The labialized velar stops and may both have been single phonemes rather than clusters like the and in English ''quick'' and ''penguin''. is more likely to have been a phoneme than . occurs between vowels and counts as a single consonant in Classical Latin poetry, but occurs only after , where it cannot be identified as a single or double consonant. and were palatalized before a front vowel, becoming and , as in compared with , and compared with . This sound change did not apply to in the same position: .
* before may have become by dissimilation. This is suggested by the fact that and (Old Latin and ) are spelled and , which may have indicated the pronunciations and . These spellings may, however, simply indicate that ''c g'' before ''u'' were labialized like , so that writing a double ''uu'' was redundant.
* The voiceless plosives in Latin were likely less aspirated than voiceless plosives at the beginning of words in English; for example, Latin was not as strongly aspirated as ''k'' in ''kind'' but more like ''k'' in English ''sky'' or ''look''. However, there was no phonemic contrast between voiceless and aspirated plosives in native Latin words, and the voiceless plosives were probably somewhat aspirated at the beginnings of words and near and . Some Greek words beginning with the voiceless plosives , when they were borrowed into colloquial Latin, were spelled with the graphemes used to represent voiced plosives ''b d g'' , e.g., Latin besides West Greek (cybernatas) (helmsman). That suggests that Latin speakers felt the Greek voiceless plosives to sound less aspirated than their own native equivalents.
* The aspirated consonants as distinctive phonemes were originally foreign to Latin, appearing in educated loanwords and names from Greek. In such cases, the aspiration was likely produced only by educated speakers.
* was also not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced initially and doubled between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek or . In Classical Latin poetry, the letter between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.
* In Classical Latin, the coronal sibilant was likely unvoiced in all positions. In Old Latin, single between vowels was pronounced as voiced but had changed to by rhotacism by the time of Classical Latin, as in as compared with . Single intervocalic in Classical Latin usually derives from an earlier double after a long vowel or diphthong, as in , from earlier , ; or is found in loanwords, such as from Greek (''pausis'').
*In Old Latin, final after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first changing to ( debuccalization), as in the inscriptional form for (Classical Latin ). Often in the poetry of Plautus, Ennius, and Lucretius, final before a word beginning in a consonant did not make the preceding syllable heavy. By the Classical period this was felt to be somewhat of a marker of non-urban speech by Cicero.
* was labiodental in Classical Latin, but it may have been bilabial in Old Latin, or perhaps in free variation with . Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on certain misspellings in inscriptions, the Proto-Indo-European phoneme from which many instances of the Latin ''f'' descended (others are from and ) and the way the sound appears to have behaved in Vulgar Latin, particularly in Spain.
* In most cases was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), causing the preceding vowel to be lengthened and nasalized, as in . In Old Latin inscriptions, final ''m'' is often omitted, as in ''uiro'' () for ''uirom'' () (Classical ). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in Latin poetry, and it was lost without a trace (apart from lengthening, possibly) in the Romance languages, except in monosyllabic words, where it's reflected as or its further developments.
* assimilated to before labial consonants as in , , to before (when present at all as opposed to representing nasalisation) and to before velar consonants, as in . This assimilation, like most other Latin contact processes, occurred regardless of word boundaries, for instance between the preposition and a following word: , , as well as between two lexical words: .
* assimilated to a velar nasal before . Allen and Greenough say that a vowel before is always long, but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an interpolation in Priscian, and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example from the root of , but from the root of . probably did not assimilate to before . The cluster arose by syncope, as for example from . Original developed into in , from the root of . At the start of a word, original was reduced to , and this change was reflected in the orthography in later texts: became , became .
* In Classical Latin, the rhotic was most likely an alveolar trill . Gaius Lucilius likens it to the sound of a dog, and later writers describe it as being produced by vibration. In Old Latin, intervocalic developed into (rhotacism), suggesting an approximant like the English , and was sometimes written as , suggesting a tap like Spanish single ''r''.
* was strongly velarized in syllable coda and probably somewhat palatalized when geminated or followed by /i(ː)/. In intervocalic position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except /i(ː)/.
* generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in , except in compound words such as (''adjaceō'') . Between vowels, this sound was generally not found as a single consonant, only as doubled , as in , except in compound words such as (''trājectus'') . varied with in the same morpheme in and , and in poetry, one could be replaced with the other for the purposes of meter.
* was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when and began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, and could be replaced with each other, as in for ''silua'' () and for . Unlike , it was not doubled as or between vowels, except in Greek loanwords: ''caué'' () , but ''Euander'' () from .
* was apparently still pronounced in Classical Latin, but was probably voiced to between vowels and prone to loss in this environment already at an early stage (compare especially with rhotacism from ''*disibeō'' and earlier ''*dishibeō'').

Notes on spelling

* Doubled consonant letters, such as ''cc'', ''ss'', represented geminated (doubled or long) consonants: . In Old Latin, geminate consonants were written singly like single consonants, until the middle of the 2nd century BC, when they began to be doubled in writing., a letter by praetor Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words , , and . Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the sicilicus, a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. This mark appears in a few inscriptions of the Augustan era.
* ''c'' and ''k'' both represent the velar stop ; ''qu'' represents the labialized velar stop . The letters ''q'' and ''c'' distinguish minimal pairs between and , such as and . In Classical Latin, ''k'' appeared in only a few words, such as or (but can also be spelled and respectively).
* ''x'' represented the consonant cluster . In Old Latin, this sequence was also spelled as ''ks'', ''cs'', and ''xs''. X was borrowed from the Western Greek alphabet, in which the letterform of chi (Χ) was pronounced as . In the standard Ionic alphabet, used for modern editions of Ancient Greek, on the other hand, Χ represented , and the letter xi (Ξ) represented .
* In Old Latin inscriptions, and were not distinguished. They were both represented by ''c'' before ''e'' and ''i'', ''q'' before ''o'' and ''u'', and ''k'' before consonants and ''a''. The letterform of ''c'' derives from Greek gamma Γ, which represented , but its use for may come from Etruscan, which did not distinguish voiced and voiceless plosives. In Classical Latin, ''c'' represented only in ''c'' and ''cn'', the abbreviations of the praenomina (first names) and .
*The letter ''g'' was created in the third century BC to distinguish the voiced from voiceless . Its letterform derived from ''c'' by the addition of a diacritic or stroke. Plutarch attributes this innovation to Spurius Carvilius Ruga around 230 BC, but it may have originated with Appius Claudius Caecus in the fourth century BC.
* The combination ''gn'' probably represented the consonant cluster , at least between vowels, as in . Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.
* The digraphs ''ph'', ''th,'' and ''ch'' represented the aspirated plosives , and . They began to be used in writing around 150 BC, primarily as a transcription of Greek phi , theta , and chi , as in , , and . Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as , , , , probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near and . Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative were also used hypercorrectively, an affectation satirized in Catullus 84.
* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial and between vowels were represented by ''s'' and ''ss'', as in from and from . Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter zeta Ζ was adopted to represent and . However, the Vulgar Latin spellings ''z'' or ''zi'' for earlier ''di'' and ''d'' before ''e'', and the spellings ''di'' and ''dz'' for earlier ''z'', suggest the pronunciation , as for example for , and for .
* In ancient times ''u'' and ''i'' represented the approximant consonants and , as well as the close vowels and .
* ''i'' representing the consonant was usually not doubled in writing, so a single ''i'' represented double or and the sequences and , as in for * , for * , and for * . Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of ''i'' could occur in some of the same environments: compare with , and with . The vowel before a doubled is sometimes marked with a macron, as in . It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is heavy from the double consonant.
* ''u (v)'' between vowels represented single in native Latin words but double in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of ''u'' (''v)'' sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in and ''silua'' () .

Vowels

Monophthongs

Latin has ten native vowels, spelled ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u''. In Classical Latin, each vowel had short and long versions: and . The long versions of the close and mid vowels ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'' had a different vowel quality from the short versions, so that long were similar to short (see following section). Some loanwords from Greek had the vowel ''y'', which was pronounced as by educated speakers but approximated with the native vowels ''u'' and ''i'' by less educated speakers.

Long and short vowels

Each vowel letter (with the possible exception of ''y'') represents at least two phonemes. ''a'' can represent either short or long , ''e'' represents either or , etc.

Short mid vowels and close vowels were pronounced with a different quality from their long counterparts, being also more open: , , and . This opening made the short vowels ''i, u'' similar in quality to long ''ē ō'' respectively. ''i, ē'' and ''u, ō'' were often written in place of each other in inscriptions:
* for
* for
* for
* for

Short most likely had a more open allophone before and tended toward near-open .

Short and were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel. was written as in inscriptions. Short before another vowel is often written with , as in , indicating that its quality was similar to that of long and is almost never confused with ''e'' in this position.

Adoption of Greek upsilon

''y'' was used in Greek loanwords with upsilon Υ. This letter represented the close front rounded vowel, both short and long: . Latin did not have this sound as a distinctive phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with in Old Latin and in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce .

An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel or possibly its rounded counterpart ), called , can be reconstructed for the classical period. Such a vowel is found in , , (also spelled , , ) and other words. It developed out of a historical short , later fronted by vowel reduction. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short . It was sometimes spelled by the Claudian letter Ⱶ ⱶ.

Vowel nasalization

Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long nasal vowels in two environments:
* Before word-final ''m'':
** >
** >
* Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:
** > (in early inscriptions, often written as )
** > (often written as and abbreviated as )
** > (written as )
Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In Vulgar Latin, the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish from Vulgar Latin (originally ) and Italian from Vulgar Latin (Classical Latin ). On the other hand, the short vowel and were restored, for example, in French and from and (''e'' is the normal development of Latin short ''i''), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix ''in-''.

When a final ''-m'' occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, was written for in inscriptions, and was a double entendre, possibly for .

Diphthongs

''ae'', ''oe'', ''au'', ''ei'', ''eu'' could represent diphthongs: ''ae'' represented , ''oe'' represented , ''au'' represented , ''ei'' represented , and ''eu'' represented . ''ui'' sometimes represented the diphthong , as in and . The diphthong ''ei'' mostly had changed to ''ī'' by the classical epoch; ''ei'' remained only in a few words such as the interjection .

If there is a tréma above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: ''aë'' , ''aü'' , ''eü'' and ''oë'' . However, disyllabic ''eu'' in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: 'my'.

In Old Latin, ''ae'', ''oe'' were written as ''ai'', ''oi'' and probably pronounced as , with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French . In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to , so that the diphthongs were pronounced and in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to and respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of Varro (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. ''De lingua Latina'', 5:97 (referred to in ). The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.

Vowel and consonant length

Vowel and consonant length were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, macrons are frequently used to mark long vowels: , while the breve is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: .

Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of ''i'' and ''v''. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet Lucius Accius. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an apex (a diacritic similar to an acute accent) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter (long i); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well. The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf. Italian "ninth" versus "grandfather".

A minimal set showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is ('anus'), ('year'), ('old woman').

Table of orthography

The letters ''b'', ''d'', ''f'', ''h'', ''m'', ''n'' are always pronounced as in English , , , , , respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

Syllables and stress

Old Latin stress

In Old Latin, as in Proto-Italic, stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word. During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:
* 'I do/make', 'made'; pronounced and in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.
* 'I affect', 'affected'; pronounced and in Old Latin following vowel reduction, and in Classical Latin.
In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of Plautus, in the 3rd century BC. The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.

Classical Latin syllables and stress

In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for 'before almost last', 'almost last', and 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the syllable weight of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented. In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.

Syllable

To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables. In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).

Nucleus

Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), has three (ae e u: VV V V), has two (u ō: V VV), and has one (ui: VV).

Onset and coda

A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.
* (CVV.CV.CVV)
* (CV.CVV.CV)
* (CV.V.CVV)
* (CV.VV.CVV)
* (CCV.CV.CVC)
* (CCCVV.CVC)

After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.
* (CV.VC.CV)
* (CV.CVC.CVC)
* (CV.VVC.CVC)
* (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)

There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop ''p t c b d g'' followed by a liquid ''l r'' between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.
* or (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)

Heavy and light syllables

As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.

Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.

The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.

In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek (''syllabḕ makrá phýsei'' = 'syllable long by nature') and (''makrà thései'' = 'long by proposition'), respectively; therefore should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention". This article uses the words ''heavy'' and ''light'' for syllables, and ''long'' and ''short'' for vowels since the two are not the same.

Stress rule

In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult. Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark before the stressed syllable.

Iambic shortening

Iambic shortening or is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type ''light–heavy'', where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like , , , with long final vowel change to , , , with short final vowel.

The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of Plautus and Terence, but not in poetry of the classical period.

Elision

Where one word ended with a vowel (including the nasalized vowels written ''am em im um~(om)'' and the diphthong ''ae'') and the next word began with a vowel, the former vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided; that is, it was omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of and ) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel. When the second word was or , and possibly when the second word was , a different form of elision sometimes occurred ( prodelision): the vowel of the preceding word was retained, and the ''e'' was elided instead. Elision also occurred in Ancient Greek, but in that language, it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form. Only occasionally is it found in inscriptions, as in for .

Modern conventions

Spelling

Letters

Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of ''I'' and ''V''. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use ''I'' (upper case) and ''i'' (lower case) for both vocalic and consonantal , to use ''V'' in the upper case and in the lower case to use ''v'' at the start of words and ''u'' subsequently within the word regardless of whether and was represented.

Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using ''I'' (upper case) and ''i'' (lower case) for both and , and ''V'' (upper case) and ''u'' (lower case) for both and .

An alternative approach, less common today, is to use ''i'' and ''u'' only for the vowels and ''j'' and ''v'' for the approximants.

Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between ''u'' and ''v'' but not between ''i'' and ''j''. Usually, the non-vocalic ''v'' after ''q'' or ''g'' is still printed as ''u'' rather than ''v'', probably because in this position it did not change from to in post-classical times.This approach is also recommended in the help page for the Latin Wikipedia.

Diacritics

Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a macron or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a circumflex used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, ('from Rome' ablative) compared to ('Rome' nominative).

Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an acute accent over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.

Pronunciation

Post-Medieval Latin

Since around the beginning of the Renaissance period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the phonology of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article '' Latin regional pronunciation'' for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on ''Ecclesiastical pronunciation'' below).

Loan words and formal study

When Latin words are used as loanwords in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.

Latin words in common use in English are generally fully assimilated into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, ''cranium'', ''saliva''. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs ''ae'' and ''oe'' (occasionally written as ligatures: ''æ'' and ''œ'', respectively), which both denote in English. The digraph ''ae'' or ligature ''æ'' in some words tend to be given an pronunciation, for example, ''curriculum vitae''.

However, using loan words in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's Romance languages, the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section below on " Derivative languages").

However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.

Ecclesiastical pronunciation

Because of the central position of Rome within the Catholic Church, an Italian pronunciation of Latin became commonly accepted, but this was not the case until the latter part of the 19th century. This pronunciation corresponds to that of the Latin-derived words in Italian. Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation as Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality of the speaker. Other ecclesiastical variations are still in use (e.g. Germanic pronunciations), especially outside the Catholic Church.

The following are the main points that distinguish modern Italianate ecclesiastical pronunciation from Classical Latin pronunciation:

The letters ''b'', ''d'', ''f'', ''m'', ''n'' are always pronounced as in English , , , , respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic stress accent of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an acute accent in words of three or more syllables.)
* Word-final ''m'' and ''n'' are pronounced fully, with no nasalization of the preceding vowel.

In his ''Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin'', William Sidney Allen remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption Pope Pius X recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences. The introduction to the '' Liber Usualis'' indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.Liber Usualis
p. xxxvj The Pontifical Academy for Latin is the pontifical academy in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.

Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in choral singing which, with a few exceptions like Stravinsky's , is concerned with liturgical texts. Anglican choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of historically informed performance and the availability of guides such as Copeman's ''Singing in Latin'' has led to the recent revival of regional pronunciations.

Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages

Because it gave rise to many modern languages, Latin did not "die"; it merely evolved over the centuries in different regions in diverse ways. The local dialects of Vulgar Latin that emerged eventually became modern Italian, Spanish, French, Romanian, Portuguese, Catalan, Romansh, Dalmatian, Sardinian, and many others.

Key features of Vulgar Latin and Romance languages include:

* Total loss of as well as the loss, in polysyllablic words, of final /m/.
* Conversion of the distinction of vowel length into a distinction of height, and subsequent merger of some of these phonemes. Most Romance languages merged short with long and short with long .
* Monophthongization of into and into .
* Loss of marginal phonemes such as aspirates (, , , generally replaced by , , ) and the close front-rounded vowel (, generally replaced by ).
* Loss of before (CL > VL ) but this influence on the later development of Romance languages was limited from written influence, analogy, and learned borrowings.
* Palatalization of before and (not in all varieties), probably first into and then before it finally developed into or .
* Palatalization of before and , merging with , which could develop into an affricate , and then further into in some Romance varieties.
* Palatalization of followed by a vowel (if not preceded by s, t, x) into . It merged with in dialects in which had developed into this sound, but it remained separate elsewhere (such as Italian).
* Palatalization of and followed by a vowel into and .
* Fortition of syllable-initial into , developing further into in many Romance varieties, or sometimes alternatively into in some contexts.
* Lenition of between vowels into , developing further into in many Romance varieties.

Examples

The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose.

From Classical Latin

Virgil's , Book 1, verses 1–4. Quantitative metre (dactylic hexameter). Translation: "I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he asmuch afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath."

# Ancient Roman orthography (before 2nd century)"The word-divider is regularly found on all good inscriptions, in papyri, on wax tablets, and even in from the earliest Republican times through the Golden Age and well into the Second Century. ... Throughout these periods the word-divider was a dot placed half-way between the upper and the lower edge of the line of writing. ... As a rule, interpuncta are used simply to divide words, except that prepositions are only rarely separated from the word they govern, if this follows next. ... The regular use of the interpunct as a word-divider continued until sometime in the Second Century, when it began to fall into disuse, and Latin was written with increasing frequency, both in papyrus and on stone or bronze, in ."

#:ARMA·VIRVMQVE·CANÓ·TRÓIAE·QVꟾ·PRꟾMVS·ABÓRꟾS
#:ꟾTALIAM·FÁTÓ·PROFVGVS·LÁVꟾNIAQVE·VÉNIT
#:LꟾTORA·MVLTVM·ILLE·ETTERRꟾS·IACTÁTVS·ETALTÓ
#:Vꟾ·SVPERVM·SAEVAE·MEMOREM·IV́NÓNIS·OBꟾRAM
# Traditional (19th century) English orthography
#:Arma virúmque cano, Trojæ qui primus ab oris
#:Italiam, fato profugus, Lavíniaque venit
#:Litora; multùm ille et terris jactatus et alto
#:Vi superum, sævæ memorem Junonis ob iram.
# Modern orthography with macrons
#:Arma virumque canō, Trōiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs
#:Ītaliam, fātō profugus, Lāvīniaque vēnit
#:Lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō
#:Vī superum, saevae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram.
# Modern orthography without macrons
#:Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris
#:Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit
#:Litora; multum ille et terris iactatus et alto
#:Vi superum, saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram.
# econstructedClassical Roman pronunciation
#:[ˈar.ma wɪ, ˈrũː.kᶣɛ ˈka, noː ˈtroː, jae̯ kᶣiː , ˈpriː.mʊs‿a‖ˈb‿oː.riːs
#:iː.ˈta.li, ãː ˈfaː, toː ˈprɔ.fʊ, ɡʊs laː, ˈwiː.nja.kᶣɛ ‖ˈweː.nɪt
#:ˈliː.tɔ.ra , ˈmʊɫ.t(ᶣ)‿ɪl, l‿ɛt ˈtɛr, riːs jak, ˈtaː.tʊ.s‿ɛ‖ˈt.aɫ.toː
#:wiː ˈsʊ.pæ, rũː ˈsae̯, wae̯ ˈmɛ.mɔ, rẽː juː, ˈnoː.nɪ.s‿ɔ‖ˈb‿iː.rãː]

Note the elisions in and in the third line. For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see Dactylic hexameter.

Some manuscripts have "" rather than "" in the second line.

From Medieval Latin

Beginning of by Thomas Aquinas (13th century). Rhymed accentual metre. Translation: "Extol, ytongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world."

# Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more).
#* Pange lingua gloriósi
#* Córporis mystérium,
#* Sanguinísque pretiósi,
#* quem in mundi prétium
#* fructus ventris generósi
#* Rex effúdit géntium.
# "Italianate" ecclesiastical pronunciation
#*
#*
#*
#*
#*
#*

See also

*Latin alphabet
*Latin grammar
* Latin regional pronunciation
*Traditional English pronunciation of Latin
* Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen – traditional German pronunciation
* Schulaussprache des Lateinischen – revised "school" pronunciation
* Traditional French pronunciation

Notes

References

Bibliography

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Further reading

*Hall, William Dawson, and Michael De Angelis. 1971. ''Latin Pronunciation According to Roman Usage.'' Anaheim, CA: National Music Publishers.
*Trame, Richard H. 1983. "A Note On Latin Pronunciation." ''The Choral Journal'' 23, no. 5: 29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23546146.Copy

External links

Classical and ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation with audio examples
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an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages, including lectures about the phonology and writing systems of Early Latin

{{DEFAULTSORT:Latin Spelling And Pronunciation
Latin language
Italic phonologies
Indo-European Latin-script orthographies

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