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Pisistratus or Peisistratus ( grc-gre, Πεισίστρατος ; 600 – 527 BC) was a politician in
ancient Athens Athens is one of the oldest named cities in the world, having been continuously inhabited for perhaps 5,000 years. Situated in southern Europe, Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC, and its cultural achieve ...
, ruling as tyrant in the late 560s, the early 550s and from 546 BC until his death. His unification of
Attica Attica ( el, Αττική, Ancient Greek ''Attikḗ'' or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece and its countryside. It is a peninsula projecting into the Aegean Se ...
, the triangular peninsula of Greece containing Athens, along with economic and cultural improvements laid the groundwork for the later preeminence of Athens in
ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
. His legacy lies primarily in his institution of the
Panathenaic Games The Panathenaic Games ( grc, Παναθήναια) were held every four years in Athens in Ancient Greece from 566 BC to the 3rd century AD. These Games incorporated religious festival, ceremony (including prize-giving), athletic competitions, a ...
, historically assigned the date of 566 BC, and the consequent first attempt at producing a definitive version of the
Homeric epics Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
. Peisistratos' championing of the lower class of Athens is an early example of
populism Populism refers to a range of political stances that emphasize the idea of "the people" and often juxtapose this group against " the elite". It is frequently associated with anti-establishment and anti-political sentiment. The term developed ...
. While in power, he did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy and greatly reduce their privileges, confiscating their lands and giving them to the poor. Peisistratos funded many religious and artistic programs, in order to improve the economy and spread the wealth more equally among the Athenian people. Peisistratids is the common family or clan name for the three
tyrants A tyrant (), in the modern English usage of the word, is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to rep ...
, who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, referring to Peisistratos and his two sons,
Hipparchos Hipparchus (; el, Ἵππαρχος, ''Hipparkhos'';  BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equi ...
and
Hippias Hippias of Elis (; el, Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος; late 5th century BC) was a Greek sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects ...
.


Background

Ancient Greek governments traditionally were
monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy) ...
-based, dating back to the 9th and 10th centuries BC. For the 7th and 6th centuries during the Archaic Period, political power began to be wielded by
aristocratic Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'. At the time of the word's ...
families, who had accumulated wealth, land, and religious or political offices, as the
Greek city-states ''Polis'' (, ; grc-gre, πόλις, ), plural ''poleis'' (, , ), literally means "city" in Greek. In Ancient Greece, it originally referred to an administrative and religious city center, as distinct from the rest of the city. Later, it also ...
began to develop. The most notable families could trace their lineage back to a legendary or mythological founder/king, such as
Herakles Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
(Heracles) or an ancestor who participated in the
Trojan War In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...
, for example. In the 6th and 5th centuries BC, prominent aristocratic families of Athens were the Peisistratids, Philaids, and the Alkmeonids. The Peisistratid clan were originally from the Mycenaean
Bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
Age city of
Pylos Pylos (, ; el, Πύλος), historically also known as Navarino, is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality Pylos-Nestoras, of which it is th ...
, located in the region of
Messenia Messenia or Messinia ( ; el, Μεσσηνία ) is a regional unit (''perifereiaki enotita'') in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese region, in Greece. Until the implementation of the Kallikratis plan on 1 January 2011, Messenia was a ...
, Greece, and traced their ancestry to the mythological king of Pylos, Neleus, whose son, Nestor, the Homeric hero, fought in the Trojan War. The second clan, the Alkmeonids, came to prominence in the 6th century BC during the lifetime of their namesake Alkmeon and whose son, Megakles, both opposed and supported Peisistratos at various points in his reign. Due to the infighting between aristocratic families and the inability to maintain order, a tyrant was well-positioned to capitalize on the discontent of the poor and disenfranchised to make a bid for power. In the age of antiquity and especially in the Archaic Age of Greece, a
tyrant A tyrant (), in the modern English usage of the word, is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to rep ...
was not viewed in the modern sense of the definition, but rather, a ruler who obtained power unconstitutionally, usually through the use of force, or inherited such power. In the first documented instance of Athenian tyranny,
Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...
notes the story of Kylon, an
ancient Olympic Games The ancient Olympic Games (Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες; la, Olympia, neuter plural: "the Olympics") were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and were one of the Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece. ...
champion, who gathered supporters, in either 636 or 632 BC, in an attempt to seize power by occupying the
Acropolis An acropolis was the settlement of an upper part of an ancient Greek city, especially a citadel, and frequently a hill with precipitous sides, mainly chosen for purposes of defense. The term is typically used to refer to the Acropolis of Athens, ...
. His attempt was unsuccessful and despite assurances to the contrary, Kylon and his supporters were allegedly killed by the Alkmeonids, resulting in the Alkmeonid curse. Related to Peisistratos through his mother,
Solon Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων;  BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politics'' ...
was an Athenian statesman and lawmaker who, in the early 6th century, restructured the social class system of Athens as well as reformed the law code, originated by
Draco Draco is the Latin word for serpent or dragon. Draco or Drako may also refer to: People * Draco (lawgiver) (from Greek: Δράκων; 7th century BC), the first lawgiver of ancient Athens, Greece, from whom the term ''draconian'' is derived * ...
. Among his many reforms, Solon eliminated debt slavery which primarily impacted poor Athenians, who were in the majority, and giving the demos, the common people of the city-state, collectively a concession to ease their suffering and possibly preventing a civil war. Peisistratos' later rise to power would draw on support from many of the poor people composing this constituency.


Early life and rise to power

Not much is known about the early years of Peisistratos' life, but his father,
Hippocrates Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of ...
, attended the Olympic Games in either 608 or 604 and during a sacrifice to the gods, the meat was boiled without a fire and was witnessed by Chilon the Lacedaemonian. As a result of this sign, Chilon recommended that Hippocrates send away his wife, if she could bear children, and if he had a son, to disown him. Hippocrates did not follow Chilon's advice, and later, he had a son named Peisistratos. Originally, Peisistratus became known as an Athenian general who captured the port of
Nisaea Nisaea or Nisaia ( grc, Νίσαια or Νισαία) was the Saronic port town of the ancient polis Megara. In Greek mythology, Nisaea was founded by one of Pandion II's sons, Nisos, who named the region given to him by his father Nisaea, after ...
(or Nisiai) in the nearby city-state of
Megara Megara (; el, Μέγαρα, ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis Island, Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, befo ...
in approximately 565 BC. This victory opened up the unofficial trade blockage that had been contributing to food shortages in Athens during the previous several decades. In the subsequent years after Solon and his departure from Athens,
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
reports that the city of Athens was still very divided and in turmoil, with many secondary sources noting the development of three distinct
political factions A political faction is a group of individuals that share a common political purpose but differs in some respect to the rest of the entity. A faction within a group or political party may include fragmented sub-factions, "parties within a party," ...
competing for control of Athens and its government. According to Aristotle, these groups were partitioned in both a geographic (as documented below) and economic sense. The first two factions, based on the plains and the coast, appeared to exist prior to the formation of the third faction. The third group, referred to as men of the Highlands (or Hill), had various motives to align with Peisistratos, including those men in poverty, recent immigrants who feared loss of citizenship, and lenders who were denied the ability to collect their debts. Names of the competing factions differ according to the accessed source, with some references offering details on each group's composition while others do not: * '' Pedieis'' or Pediakoi: the population that resided on the plains, led by
Lycurgus Lycurgus or Lykourgos () may refer to: People * Lycurgus (king of Sparta) (third century BC) * Lycurgus (lawgiver) (eighth century BC), creator of constitution of Sparta * Lycurgus of Athens (fourth century BC), one of the 'ten notable orators' ...
. These landowners produced grain, giving them leverage during the food shortage. * ''
Paralioi The Paralia ( el, Παραλία, 3=the sea-side/coast) was a geographical and administrative region (''trittys'') of ancient Attica. The term designated the coasts of Attica, but was also generally used for the entire portion of Attica east of ...
'' or Paraloi: the population living along the coast, led by
Megacles Megacles or Megakles ( grc, Μεγακλῆς) was the name of several notable men of ancient Athens, as well as an officer of Pyrrhus of Epirus. First archon The first Megacles was possibly a legendary archon of Athens from 922 BC to 892 BC. A ...
, an
Alcmaeonid The Alcmaeonidae or Alcmaeonids ( grc-gre, Ἀλκμαιωνίδαι ; Attic: ) were a wealthy and powerful noble family of ancient Athens, a branch of the Neleides who claimed descent from the mythological Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nes ...
. The Paralioi party was not as strong as the Pedieis, primarily because they could not produce grain, like the plainsmen. With the Megareans patrolling the sea, much of Athens' import/export power was limited. * '' Hyperakrioi'': not previously represented by the first two factions or parties listed above, dwelled primarily in the hills and were by far the poorest of the Athenian population. Their only production was barter in items like honey and wool. Peisistratos organized them into a third faction, the Hyperakrioi, or hill dwellers. This party grossly outnumbered the other two parties combined. R.J. Hopper provides similar names for the factions and classifies them by their region in Attica: Pedion, Paralia, and Diakria. Pomeroy and her fellow three authors state the three factions of Athens are as follows: * the Men of the Plain: the population composed mostly of large landowners. * the Men of the Coast: the population likely including fishermen and craftsmen. * the Men of the Hill: the population containing the poorer residents of the Attic highlands, and possibly including residents of Attica cities as well. Herodotus provides the following information about the three groups: * Plains district: led by Lykourgos, son of Aristoleides. * Coastal district: led by Megakles, son of Alkmeon. * Hill district: formed by Peisistratos in an effort to become tyrant of Athens. His role in the Megarian conflict gained Peisistratos popularity in Athens, but he did not have the political clout to seize power. Around the year 561 BC, Herodotus writes how Peisistratos intentionally wounded himself and his mules, asking the Athenian people to provide bodyguards for protection and reminding them of his prior accomplishments, including the port capture of Nisiai. Peisistratos had driven his chariot into the
agora The agora (; grc, ἀγορά, romanized: ', meaning "market" in Modern Greek) was a central public space in ancient Greek city-states. It is the best representation of a city-state's response to accommodate the social and political order of t ...
or marketplace of Athens, claiming he had been wounded by his enemies outside of town, and thus, the people of Athens selected some of their men to function as a bodyguard, armed with clubs rather than spears, for him. Previously, he had assumed control of the Hyperakrioi, which was not an aristocratic group like the other two Athens factions, by promoting his democratic program and securing a mutual agreement with the members or demos of the faction. By obtaining support from this vast number of the poorer population and receiving the protection of bodyguards, he was able to overrun and seize the Acropolis as well as grasp the reins of the government. The Athenians were open to a tyranny similar to that under Solon, who previously had been offered the tyranny of Athens but declined, and in the early part of the Archaic Age, the rivalries among the aristocratic clans was fierce, making a single-ruler tyranny an attractive option, with the promise of possible stability and internal peace, and Peisistratos' ruse won him further prominence. With the Acropolis in his possession and with the support of his bodyguard, he declared himself tyrant.


Periods of power/three attempts at tyranny


First period of power

Peisistratos assumed and held power for three different periods of time, ousted from political office and exiled twice during his reign, before taking command of Athens for the third, final, and longest period of time from 546–528 BC. His first foray into power started in the year 561 and lasted about five years. His first ouster from office was circa 556/555 BC after the other two factions, the Plains people led by Lycurgus and the Coastal people led by Megakles, normally at odds with each other, joined forces and removed him from power. Different sources provide conflicting or unspecified time intervals for the periods of Peisistratos' reign. For example, Herodotus writes that Megakles' and Lykourgos' followers combined after a short time to expel Peisistratos from power. Aristotle comments that Peisistratos was forced out during the year of the archonship of Hegesias, five years after he originally assumed his first tyranny in Athens.


Exile and second period of power

He was exiled for three to six years during which the agreement between the Pedieis (Plains) and the Paralioi (Coastal) fell apart. Soon after, in the year 556 BC or so, Megakles invited Peisistratos back for a return to power upon the condition he, Peisistratos, marry Megakles' daughter. According to Herodotus, the two men concocted a very creative method to rally the people of Athens back to Peisistratos' side. A tall, almost six foot woman, Phye, from the
deme In Ancient Greece, a deme or ( grc, δῆμος, plural: demoi, δημοι) was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states. Demes as simple subdivisions of land in the countryside seem to have existed in the 6th century BC and ear ...
or rural village of
Paiania Paiania (or ''Paeanea'' or ''Peania'' el, Παιανία, , before 1915: Λιόπεσι - ''Liopesi'', ; Arvanitika: Λοπε̱σ romanized: Lopës) is a town and a municipality in East Attica, Greece. It is an eastern suburb of Athens, located ...
was selected to pose as the goddess
Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of ...
, by being dressed in full armor, riding in a chariot, and being counselled on how to portray the goddess. Heralds were sent ahead to announce that Athena herself was bringing Peisistratos back to her acropolis and that she exalted him above all other men. Word traveled fast to the people throughout the villages and even to those in the city believing that Phye was the goddess Athena and consequently, Peisistratos was welcomed back by the awestruck Athenians. How much of this story is based in facts versus an oral fabrication or exaggeration passed down to Herodotus is not entirely known. Lavelle writes that this story provides a Homer-type mythological tie-in to the connection between the gods and Greek heroes where Peisistratos' prior resume as a warrior and general would be viewed as heroic and furthermore, Peisistratos would be viewed in a similar manner as the Greek hero
Odysseus Odysseus ( ; grc-gre, Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσεύς, OdysseúsOdyseús, ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; lat, UlyssesUlixes), is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the ''Odyssey''. Odysse ...
, who was viewed as cunning and having a special relationship with Athena. It is debated to what extent this staged event impacted the return of many to his side. Krentz postulates that the story should be viewed in the context of a premeditated performance of Athena returning to the temple dedicated to her. While some argue that the general public believed he had won the favor of the goddess, others instead put forward the idea that the public were aware that he was using the chariot ride as a political maneuver, drawing comparisons between himself and the ancient kings of Athens.


Conflict, second exile, and return to power for third time

Soon after, Herodotus reports that Peisistratos, who had been previously married and had two grown sons, did not want to have any children with his new wife, the daughter of Megakles, and would not have intercourse with her in the traditional manner. Apparently, Peisistratos was unwilling to compromise the political futures of his sons,
Hipparchus Hipparchus (; el, Ἵππαρχος, ''Hipparkhos'';  BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equi ...
and
Hippias Hippias of Elis (; el, Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος; late 5th century BC) was a Greek sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects ...
. Furious, Megakles broke off this short-lived alliance with Peisistratos and drove him into exile for a second time, with the help of Peisistratos' enemies. During the length of his exile lasting approximately ten years, Peisistratos relocated to Rhaicelus or Rhaecelus, notable for its good agricultural base, in the
Strymon river The Struma or Strymónas ( bg, Струма ; el, Στρυμόνας ; tr, (Struma) Karasu , 'black water') is a river in Bulgaria and Greece. Its ancient name was Strymṓn (Greek: Στρυμών ). Its drainage area is , of which in Bulgaria, ...
region of northern Greece, and eventually settled in the vicinity of Mount Pangaeus or Pangaion, accumulating wealth from the gold and silver mines located nearby. Financed by the mining money, he hired
mercenary soldiers A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any o ...
and bolstered with the support of allies such as the
Thebans Thebes (; ell, Θήβα, ''Thíva'' ; grc, Θῆβαι, ''Thêbai'' .) is a city in Boeotia, Central Greece. It played an important role in Greek myths, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus, Heracles and others. Archaeolog ...
and the affluent Lygdamis of the island
Naxos Naxos (; el, Νάξος, ) is a Greek island and the largest of the Cyclades. It was the centre of archaic Cycladic culture. The island is famous as a source of emery, a rock rich in corundum, which until modern times was one of the best abr ...
, he looked southward for a return to power. In 546 BC, using
Eretria Eretria (; el, Ερέτρια, , grc, Ἐρέτρια, , literally 'city of the rowers') is a town in Euboea, Greece, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow South Euboean Gulf. It was an important Greek polis in the 6th and 5th centur ...
as a base and supported by Eretrian cavalry, Peisistratos landed at
Marathon The marathon is a long-distance foot race with a distance of , usually run as a road race, but the distance can be covered on trail routes. The marathon can be completed by running or with a run/walk strategy. There are also wheelchair div ...
on the northern side of Attica and advanced towards Athens, joined by some local sympathizers from Athens and the surrounding demes. The Athenians mustered a force in opposition and met Peisistratos' forces at Pallene. Providing some background details, Herodotus comments that just before the battle commences a seer gave Peisistratos a prophecy that the net has been cast and the tuna will swarm through. With the prophecy both welcomed and understood by Peisistratos, his troops advanced and attacked the Athenian forces who were resting after lunch, easily routing them. While the Athenians retreated and in order to prevent them from reforming their forces, Peisistratos directed his sons to ride after the routed Athenians and announce that they should return home, retaining no anxiety or fear from the situation at hand. With those instructions, the Athenians complied and Peisistratos was able to return to rule Athens for a third time as tyrant, with his reign lasting from 546 BC till his death in 528/527 BC.


Achievements and contributions to Athens during third and final tyranny

Analysis of secondary sources regarding both the length, as mentioned previously, and the accomplishments of Peisistratos' first two tyrannies are conflicting and very sparse in details, respectively. For instance, Lavelle hypothesizes that Megakles and the Alkmeonids still held the majority of the political offices in the Athens government as part of the price and negotiation process that Peisistratos had to pay in order to become tyrant, and consequently, Peisistratos perhaps only functioned as a figurehead during his first two times in power. During the three reigns of Peisistratos in the mid to latter part of the 6th century BC, Athens was beginning its transition to becoming the largest and most dominant of the cities on the Attic peninsula. Starr states that Athens was coalescing into the framework of a city, rather than a loose affiliation of neighboring villages. Perhaps next in importance was
Piraeus Piraeus ( ; el, Πειραιάς ; grc, Πειραιεύς ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens' city centre, along the east coast of the Saronic ...
, the main port city of Attica, just 5 miles southwest of Athens, and this port location was key to granting Athens easy access to maritime trade opportunities and the ocean waterways. Other notable cities in Attica include Marathon and
Eleusis Elefsina ( el, Ελευσίνα ''Elefsina''), or Eleusis (; Ancient Greek: ''Eleusis'') is a suburban city and Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality in the West Attica regional unit of Greece. It is situated about northwest ...
.


Culture, religion, and arts

With an emphasis on promoting the city of Athens as a cultural center and enhancing his prestige, Peisistratos instituted a number of actions to show his support for the gods and patronage of the arts. A permanent copying of Homer's ''
Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odysse ...
'' and ''
Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major Ancient Greek literature, ancient Greek Epic poetry, epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by moder ...
'' was commissioned by Peisistratos and he also increased the visibility of the Panathenaic festival, whose origins date from earlier in the 6th century and was celebrated to a large degree every four years, with scaled-down versions of the festival every year. Due to the expansion of the Panathenaic festival, Athena became the most revered goddess of Athens, in essence the patron god of the city-state, and the end of the festival would see a parade traveling to Athena's temple at the Acropolis, featuring a robe for the deity made by young Athenian women. Recitations of Homeric poems and athletic competitions became part of the festivities and prizes were given to the winners. New festivals were inaugurated such as the greater and lesser
Dionysia The Dionysia (, , ; Greek: Διονύσια) was a large festival in ancient Athens in honor of the god Dionysus, the central events of which were the theatrical performances of dramatic tragedies and, from 487 BC, comedies. It was the sec ...
, which honored
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...
, the god of wine and pleasure, and vase paintings of that period highlighted drinking and exuberant celebratory scenes. At the Dionysia festival, prizes were granted for the singing of
dithyrambs The dithyramb (; grc, διθύραμβος, ''dithyrambos'') was an ancient Greek hymn sung and danced in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility; the term was also used as an epithet of the god. Plato, in ''The Laws'', while discussing ...
and by the year 534 BC approximately,
tragedy Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
plays were an annual competition occurrence. Control of the temple of
Demeter In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth. Although s ...
, located in
Eleusis Elefsina ( el, Ελευσίνα ''Elefsina''), or Eleusis (; Ancient Greek: ''Eleusis'') is a suburban city and Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality in the West Attica regional unit of Greece. It is situated about northwest ...
and honoring the goddesses Demeter and
Persephone In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Persephone ( ; gr, Περσεφόνη, Persephónē), also called Kore or Cora ( ; gr, Κόρη, Kórē, the maiden), is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. She became the queen of the underworld after ...
, was also accomplished by Peisistratos and as a result, the floor plan of a great hall, the
Telesterion The Telesterion ("Initiation Hall" from Gr. τελείω, "to complete, to fulfill, to consecrate, to initiate") was a great hall and sanctuary in Eleusis, one of the primary centers of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The hall had a fifty-five yard ...
, was redesigned so a much larger building (27m by 30m) could be built onsite, with completion during the last few years of Peisistratos' reign or during the time of his sons' rule. Completely made of stone, the Telesterion had marble upper works, a Doric style portico, and tiles. The Greater Mysteries festival at Eleusis was an annual event held in the fall of each year, and was a Pan-Hellenic cult event for people both inside and outside of the Attica region. Other minor local cults sprinkled throughout Attica were either relocated entirely or in part to the city of Athens.


Policy: domestic and foreign


Domestic

One of the major areas of focus for Peisistratos and his government was the
economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
, and building and expanding on what his predecessor, Solon, had originally started. Peisistratos, likewise, had a two pronged approach: improve and modify
agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating Plant, plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of Sedentism, sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of Domestication, domesticated species created food ...
production as well as expand
commerce Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, nation ...
. In terms of agriculture, Solon had previously initiated a focus on the growth and cultivation of olives, which were better suited to the Athenian climate, as a cash crop. Peisistratos reintroduced a focus on olive production and in conjunction, he allocated funds to help the peasants outside the city of Athens, who were a key constituent bloc of his party, the Hyperakrioi, to obtain land as well as purchase tools and farm equipment. The small farmer loans were funded in large part by an assessment or tax on agricultural production, a rare documented example of an Athenian direct tax, at a rate of ten percent according to Aristotle. A secondary source reports that the tax was closer to five percent. Consequently, providing loans and monies to the rural residents surrounding Athens allowed them to continue working in the fields and to perhaps have them be uninterested in the politics of the city-state. Peisistratos also initiated a traveling system of judges throughout the countryside to conduct trials on location and even the tyrant himself would occasionally accompany these groups for inspection purposes and conflict resolution. At one point, Peisistratos appeared before the court in his own defense, charged with murder, but the prosecution/accuser dropped the charges, being reluctant or afraid to move forward in the case. On the commerce side, Athenian or Attic pottery was a key export, with small numbers of pottery beginning to arrive in the
Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
, Italian, and French regions (the modern-day names for these regions) in the 7th century. Under Solon, beginning in the early part of the 6th century, these
black-figure pottery Black-figure pottery painting, also known as the black-figure style or black-figure ceramic ( grc, , }), is one of the styles of painting on antique Greek vases. It was especially common between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE, although there are ...
commodities began to be exported in ever increasing numbers and distance from Athens, arriving throughout the Aegean and
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
regions. Peisistratos continued to expand this vital pottery trade, with the black-figure pottery being found in
Ionia Ionia () was an ancient region on the western coast of Anatolia, to the south of present-day Izmir. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements. Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian ...
, Cyprus, and as far east as Syria, while to the west, Spain was the most distant market. The popularity of Athenian pottery was noteworthy in the fact that its numbers eventually began to surpass
Corinthian Corinthian or Corinthians may refer to: *Several Pauline epistles, books of the New Testament of the Bible: **First Epistle to the Corinthians **Second Epistle to the Corinthians **Third Epistle to the Corinthians (Orthodox) *A demonym relating to ...
pottery exports. As for the city of Athens itself, Peisistratos embarked on a public building project campaign to improve the
infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and priv ...
and architecture of Athens, building new and upgrading old. His administration built roads and worked to improve the water supply of Athens. An aqueduct was connected to the Enneakrounos fountain at the edge of the agora and this marketplace was improved by revising the market lay-out in a more systematic way, improving both its effectiveness and use of space.
Archaeologists Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
have discovered agora markers from the 6th century supporting such a claim. Aristocrats had previously owned their private wells and Peisistratos elected to construct fountain houses with public access to water. On the Acropolis, the temple of Athena was reconstructed as the 6th century progressed, and during Peisistratos' rule, the building of a very large temple dedicated to Zeus was initiated, stopped upon his death, resumed several centuries later, and finally completed by
Hadrian Hadrian (; la, Caesar Trâiānus Hadriānus ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. He was born in Italica (close to modern Santiponce in Spain), a Roman ''municipium'' founded by Italic settlers in Hispania B ...
, a
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
emperor, in 131 AD. Public rather than private patronage became the hallmark of a Peisistratos-ruled society, providing a steady source of construction jobs to those citizens in need and more affordable housing in the city center. Consequently, more people were able to move to the city of Athens. To finance these public infrastructure projects as well as increasing the depth and variety of cultural and arts offerings, Peisistratos used the revenue streams generated from the mining at Mount Pangaeus in northern Greece and the silver mines located closer to home at
Laurion Laurium or Lavrio ( ell, Λαύριο; grc, Λαύρειον (later ); before early 11th century BC: Θορικός ''Thorikos''; from Middle Ages until 1908: Εργαστήρια ''Ergastiria'') is a town in southeastern part of Attica, Gree ...
, owned by the state, in Attica. However, despite evidence of silver coinage, R. J. Hopper writes that silver was indeed produced during this time, but the amount is unclear for the years prior to 484/483 BC and it is possible that historians and researchers have overestimated the importance of the mines. Regarding the minting of silver coins, evidence of this production started to appear in the early 6th century in various Greek city-states. Pomeroy contends that the first stamping of coins, imprinted with the image of an owl, was initiated by either Peisistratos or his sons. This owl depiction symbolized the goddess of wisdom, Athena, and these coins quickly became the most widely recognized currency in the Aegean region. Meanwhile, Verlag argues that the minting most likely started in the first decade of Peisistratos' third reign in power (546-circa 535 BC), but the design was the so-called (heraldic coins) at first and then followed by a change to the owl currency version. The dating and placement of this change is uncertain, either late in the Peisistratid dynastic era or early in the democratic era of Athens.


Foreign

In conjunction with the burgeoning Athenian commerce, Peisistratos conducted a foreign policy, especially in the central Aegean Sea, with the intent of building alliances with friendly leaders. On the island of Naxos, the wealthy Lygdamis, who assisted Peisistratos in his triumphant return from his second exile, was installed as ruler and tyrant, and Lygdamis, in turn, placed
Polycrates Polycrates (; grc-gre, Πολυκράτης), son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from the 540s BC to 522 BC. He had a reputation as both a fierce warrior and an enlightened tyrant. Sources The main source for Polycrates' life and activit ...
as ruler of the island Samos. Peisistratos reassumed control of the port city, Sigeion or Sigeum, on the coast of western
Anatolia Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
(modern-day
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
), placing one of his sons in charge of the government. In addition, Peisistratos was able to establish an Athenian presence in the
Thracian The Thracians (; grc, Θρᾷκες ''Thrāikes''; la, Thraci) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Eastern and Southeastern Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied t ...
Chersonese, now known as the
Gallipoli The Gallipoli peninsula (; tr, Gelibolu Yarımadası; grc, Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης, ) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles ...
peninsula located in modern-day Turkey, by dispatching
Miltiades Miltiades (; grc-gre, Μιλτιάδης; c. 550 – 489 BC), also known as Miltiades the Younger, was a Greek Athenian citizen known mostly for his role in the Battle of Marathon, as well as for his downfall afterwards. He was the son of Cimon C ...
, son of
Kimon Cimon or Kimon ( grc-gre, Κίμων; – 450BC) was an Athenian '' strategos'' (general and admiral) and politician. He was the son of Miltiades, also an Athenian ''strategos''. Cimon rose to prominence for his bravery fighting in the naval Bat ...
, to rule as tyrant. The
Hellespont The Dardanelles (; tr, Çanakkale Boğazı, lit=Strait of Çanakkale, el, Δαρδανέλλια, translit=Dardanéllia), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli from the Gallipoli peninsula or from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont (; ...
waterway was a very narrow strait of water between the Thracian Chersonese and Anatolia, and the Thracian peninsula was a key location along travel routes between Asia Minor (Anatolia) and the European continent. Herodotus reports in the '' Histories'' that Miltiades was sent over to take control of the Chersonese at a later time in the 6th century, in the year 516, by the sons of Peisistratos. In the process of assuming power, Miltiades procured the support of 500 mercenaries, similar to a Peisistratos' tactic, and married a Thracian princess.


Popular tyrant

As opposed to the modern definition of a
tyrant A tyrant (), in the modern English usage of the word, is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to rep ...
, a one-person leader whose ruling attributes are often considered to be violent and oppressive, the usage of the term tyrant during the Archaic Age of Greece did not automatically imply dictatorial or harsh actions by that individual. Rather, the Greek populace would judge a tyrant's reign, good or bad, in regards to their actions and behavior. Some tyrannies were short-lived while others, like Peisistratos' rule, could last quite long, even decades, if perceived to be a good tyranny and accepted by the people. By definition, tyrants obtained their ruling position by force or other unconstitutional means, and they did not inherit this authoritarian role in the manner of a king or via monarchial succession. However, once in power, many tyrants attempted to establish the propagation of their rule by passing the leadership mantle to their sons, similar to the approach of Peisistratos. Usually, a tyrant would come from the ranks of fellow aristocrats, but would frequently rally the poor and powerless to their cause in a bid to obtain power, exemplified by Peisistratos when he formed the Hyperakrioi faction. To ease their transition into power and encourage societal security, tyrants could elect to keep the ''
status quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, political, religious or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the current state of social structure and/or values. W ...
'' for government institutions and laws, and even legacy officeholders, rather than purge them, In Herodotus' view as documented in the ''Histories'', after assuming power for the first time, Peisistratos managed the city of Athens even-handedly and fairly, maintaining the government and political office structure as is with no changes to existing laws. However, after reassuming control in 546 BC for his third stint as head of state, Herodotus allows that he firmly established his tyranny with his mercenary force, increased his revenues from mining sources in Attica and Mt Pangaeus, placed opponents' children as hostages on the island of Naxos, and exiled both Alkmeonids as well as other Athenian dissenters (whether by freely chosen exile or by force is unclear). Pomeroy reaffirms Herodotus' commentary regarding Peisistratos third turn in power, adding that Peisistratos installed relatives and friends in the offices of various archonships and detained the children of some Athenians as hostages to deter future uprisings and discourage opposition. Some of these actions would contradict the perception that Peisistratos ruled justly and followed the law. Aristotle seconds the initial remarks of Herodotus by characterizing Peisistratos' reign as moderate and mild, describing the ruler as having a pleasant and tender disposition. As an illustration, Aristotle relates the case of a member of Peisistratos' entourage encountering a man tilling a very stony plot of land and asking what was the yield of this land. The anonymous man responded that he received physical soreness and aches and Peisistratos received one-tenth of this yield. Due to his honesty, or perhaps his cleverness, Peisistratos exempted the man from paying his taxes. Aristotle also comments that Peisistratos' government functioned more in a constitutional manner and less like a tyranny. Rosivach writes that the Peisistratid dynasty did not fundamentally change the government as originally created by Solon; instead, they maintained power by installing allies in important governmental positions, threatening force as needed, and using marriage alliances, all being tactics residing outside the constitution and law. Forsdyke chronicles the certain usage of Greek words by Herodotus in his ''Histories'' in reference to Peisistratos' tyranny and advocates that a society ruled by a tyrant has weak citizens while a democratic society has strong and free people.


Legacy and aftermath

Peisistratos died in 527 or 528 BC, and his eldest son,
Hippias Hippias of Elis (; el, Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος; late 5th century BC) was a Greek sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects ...
, succeeded him as tyrant of Athens. Hippias, along with his brother,
Hipparchus Hipparchus (; el, Ἵππαρχος, ''Hipparkhos'';  BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the equi ...
, kept many of the existing laws and taxed the Athenians at no more than five percent of their income. In 514 BC, a plot to kill both Hippias and Hipparchos was conceived by two lovers,
Harmodius and Aristogeiton Harmodius (Greek: Ἁρμόδιος, ''Harmódios'') and Aristogeiton (Ἀριστογείτων, ''Aristogeíton''; both died 514 BC) were two lovers in Classical Athens who became known as the Tyrannicides (τυραννόκτονοι, ''tyranno ...
, after Hipparchos had unsuccessfully solicited the younger Harmodius and subsequently insulted his sister. However, Hipparchus was the only one assassinated, and per
Thucydides Thucydides (; grc, , }; BC) was an Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientifi ...
, was mistakenly identified as the supreme tyrant due to being the victim. However, Hippias was the actual leader of Athens, remaining in power for another four years. During this time, Hippias became more paranoid and oppressive in his actions, killing many of the Athenian citizens. The
Alcmaeonid The Alcmaeonidae or Alcmaeonids ( grc-gre, Ἀλκμαιωνίδαι ; Attic: ) were a wealthy and powerful noble family of ancient Athens, a branch of the Neleides who claimed descent from the mythological Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nes ...
family helped depose the tyranny by bribing the Delphic oracle to tell the
Spartans Sparta (Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referred t ...
to liberate
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
, which they did in 510 BC. Following the capture of their children, Hippias and the other Peisistratids were forced to accept the terms dictated by the Athenians to recover their children and were exiled, being provided safe passage to Sigeion. The surviving Peisistratid ruler, Hippias, eventually joined the court of King Darius of
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, and went on to aid the Persians in their attack on Marathon (490 BC) during the
Greco-Persian Wars The Greco-Persian Wars (also often called the Persian Wars) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the ...
, acting as a guide. Upon the fall of the Peisistratid dynasty in 510 and the deposition of Hippias,
Kleisthenes Cleisthenes ( ; grc-gre, Κλεισθένης), or Clisthenes (c. 570c. 508 BC), was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. For these accomplishm ...
of Athens ultimately triumphs in a power struggle, dividing the Athenian citizens into ten new tribes, creating a Council of Five Hundred as a representative assembly, and ushering in the age of democratic government in the year 508/507. According to Pomeroy, the tyranny of Peisistratos and his sons functioned as a social leveling mechanism, regardless of economic status, for those outside the Peisistratid faction and sympathizers. Hence, the democratic style of government that evolved to replace the overthrow of the Peisistratids was aided by the circumstances and outcomes of the outgoing tyranny. Upon the passing of Peisistratos, the coalescing of Athens and its city-state population into a tightly knit society, both of a religious and civil nature, was well underway, even though Athens was still much less influential militarily and politically compared to Sparta, its future ally and rival of the upcoming 5th century BC. Per Aristotle, the tyranny during the time of Peisistratus was commonly thought of as "the age of gold". This reference to an age of gold harkened back to the mythological god Cronos/
Cronus In Ancient Greek religion and mythology, Cronus, Cronos, or Kronos ( or , from el, Κρόνος, ''Krónos'') was the leader and youngest of the first generation of Titans, the divine descendants of the primordial Gaia (Mother Earth) and ...
, who ruled during what was called the Golden Age. During the era of Athenian democracy, the development of
ostracism Ostracism ( el, ὀστρακισμός, ''ostrakismos'') was an Athenian democratic procedure in which any citizen could be expelled from the city-state of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the ci ...
, the expelling of a citizen for up to ten years, as a governmental management tool arose in reaction to the tyranny of the Peisistratids, and was envisioned, in part, as a defense against potential tyrants or individuals who amassed too much power or influence. The poet
Dante Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...
in Canto XV of the
Purgatorio ''Purgatorio'' (; Italian for "Purgatory") is the second part of Dante's ''Divine Comedy'', following the ''Inferno'' and preceding the '' Paradiso''. The poem was written in the early 14th century. It is an allegory telling of the climb of Da ...
, the second installment of the ''
Divine Comedy The ''Divine Comedy'' ( it, Divina Commedia ) is an Italian narrative poem by Dante Alighieri, begun 1308 and completed in around 1321, shortly before the author's death. It is widely considered the pre-eminent work in Italian literature and ...
'', references Peisistratos as responding in a gentle way when interacting with an admirer of his daughter. According to
Suda The ''Suda'' or ''Souda'' (; grc-x-medieval, Σοῦδα, Soûda; la, Suidae Lexicon) is a large 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Soudas (Σούδας) or Souidas ...
, the bodyguards of Peisistratos were called wolf-feet (), because they always had their feet covered with wolf-skins, to prevent frostbite; alternatively, because they had a wolf symbol on their shields.


See also

* Land reform in Athens *
Stasis (ancient Greece) In political history, stasis ( grc, στάσις; plural: ) refers to an episode of civil war within an ancient Greek city-state or polis. It was the result of opposition between groups of citizens, fighting over the constitution of the city or soci ...


Notes


References

*Alighieri, Dante. ''Dante's Purgatorio : The Vision of Purgatory from the Divine Comedy''. Translated by The Rev. Henry Francis Cary. Illustrated by Gustave Dore. Minneapolis: First Avenue Editions, 2015. *"Ancient Greek Poleis Systems of Government: Athens and Sparta." May 8, 2021. https://www.classicsteachers.com/uploads/1/1/6/9/116945311/politics_in_athens_and_sparta.pdf. * *Barolini, Teodolinda. "Purgatorio 15: Divine Multiplication (Commento Baroliniano)." ''Digital Dante''. New York: Columbia University Libraries, 2014. https://digitaldante.columbia.edu/dante/divine-comedy/purgatorio/purgatorio-15/. *Berti, Monica. ''Fra tirannide e democrazia: Ipparco figlio di Carmo e il destino dei Pisistratidi ad Atene''. Alessandria: Edizioni Dell’Orso, 2004 * *Borthwick, Edward K. “Music and Dance.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner's, 1988. Vol. 1, 1507-8. *Cahill, Thomas. ''Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter''. New York: Doubleday, 2003. *Cartwright, Mark. "Ancient Greek Coinage." ''World History Encyclopedia''. July 15, 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Coinage/. *Cartwright, Mark. "Ancient Greek Government." ''World History Encyclopedia''. March 20, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Government/. *Cartwright, Mark. "Piraeus." ''World History Encyclopedia''. June 2, 2013. https://www.worldhistory.org/Piraeus/#:~:text=Piraeus%20(or%20Peiraieus)%20was%20the,Kantharos%2C%20Zea%2C%20and%20Munichia.. * * * * * Everdell, William. ''The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. * * * *Garland, Robert. “Greek Spectacles and Festivals.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner's, 1988. Vol. 1, 1148. *Glowacki, Kevin T. "The Acropolis." ''The Stoa: A Consortium for Electronic Publication in the Humanities (The Ancient City of Athens)''. 2004. https://www.stoa.org/athens/sites/acropolis.html. * * * * *Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Anthony eds. “Peisistratus.” The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2003. *Lavelle, B. M. Fame, Money and Power: The Rise of Peisistratos and “Democratic” Tyranny at Athens. The University of Michigan Press, 2005. * *Macquire, Kelly. "Pylos." ''World History Encyclopedia''. October 6, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Pylos/. * *Martin, Thomas R. "Tyranny at Athens." ''Perseus Digital Library - Tufts University''. Accessed May 15, 2021. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0009%3Achapter%3D6%3Asection%3D28. *"Pisistratus." ''Encyclopedia.com''. May 29, 2018. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/ancient-history-greece-biographies/pisistratus. *Pomeroy, Sarah B., Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. ''Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history''. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. *Roisman, Joseph, and translated by J.C Yardley, ''Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander'' (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2011) * *Silk, M. S. ''Homer: The Iliad''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ProQuest Ebook Central. *Starr, Chester G. "Peisistratos: Tyrant of Athens." ''Britannica''. Accessed May 15, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peisistratus. *Strassler, Robert B., ed. ''The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories.'' Translated by Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books, 2007. *Strassler, Robert B., ed. ''The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War''. Translated by Richard Crawley. New York: Free Press, 1996. *"Suda Encyclopedia." Translated by Suda On Line project. ''ToposText''. Accessed June 3, 2021. https://topostext.org/work/240#la.797. * *Thucydides. “Funeral Oration of Pericles.” The Peloponnesian War. Trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1881. Ed. Paul Brians. December 18, 1998. *"Tyrant, Ancient Greece." ''Britannica''. Accessed April 28, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/tyrant. *"The Tyrants." ''Encyclopedia.com''. Accessed April 30, 2021. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/tyrants. {{DEFAULTSORT:Peisistratos Athenian tyrants 6th-century BC Athenians Archaic tyrants Archaic Athens Ancient Olympic competitors Year of birth unknown 520s BC deaths