The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a

legume A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock f ...

crop grown mainly for its edible

seeds A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm pl ...

. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, important to both small and large commercial producers. It is classified as both a grain legume and, due to its high oil content, an oil crop. World annual production of shelled peanuts was 44 million tonnes in 2016, led by China with 38% of the world total. Atypically among legume crop plants, peanut pods develop underground ( geocarpy) rather than above ground. With this characteristic in mind, the botanist Carl Linnaeus gave peanuts the specific epithet ''hypogaea'', which means "under the earth." The peanut belongs to the botanical family

Fabaceae The Fabaceae or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomenc ...

(or Leguminosae), commonly known as the legume, bean, or pea family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor

symbiotic Symbiosis (from Greek , , "living together", from , , "together", and , bíōsis, "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasit ...

nitrogen-fixing bacteria in

root nodule Root nodules are found on the roots of plants, primarily legumes, that form a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, capable plants form a symbiotic relationship with a host-specific strain of bacteria known a ...

s. The capacity to fix nitrogen means peanuts require less nitrogen-containing fertilizer and improve

soil fertility Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality.

, making them valuable in crop rotations. Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such as walnuts and

almond The almond (''Prunus amygdalus'', syn. ''Prunus dulcis'') is a species of tree native to Iran and surrounding countries, including the Levant. The almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus ...

s, and, as a

culinary nut A nut is a fruit consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, a wide variety of dry seeds are called nuts, but in a botanical context "nut" implies that the shell ...

, are often served in similar ways in

Western cuisine European cuisine comprises the cuisines of Europe "European Cuisine."botanical definition of a nut is "a fruit whose

ovary The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. ...

wall becomes hard at maturity." Using this criterion, the peanut is not a nut. However, peanuts are usually categorized as nuts for culinary purposes and in common English more generally.

History

The ''Arachis'' genus is native to South America, east of the Andes, around Peru,

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

, Argentina, and Brazil. Cultivated peanuts (''A. hypogaea'') arose from a

hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...

between two wild species of peanut, thought to be '' A. duranensis'' and '' A. ipaensis''. The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, forming what is termed an amphidiploid or allotetraploid. Genetic analysis suggests the hybridization may have occurred only once and gave rise to '' A. monticola'', a wild form of peanut that occurs in a few limited locations in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today. and by

artificial selection Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant m ...

to ''A. hypogaea''. The process of domestication through artificial selection made ''A. hypogaea'' dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier, more compact, and have a different pod structure and larger seeds. From this primary center of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary

centers of diversity A center of origin is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties. They are also considered centers of diversity. Centers of origin were first identified in 1924 by Ni ...

in Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved; these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies (as listed in the peanut scientific classification table). Subspecies ''A. h. fastigiata'' types are more upright in their growth habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies ''A. h. hypogaea'' types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles. The oldest known

archeological Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscape ...

remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old, possibly a wild species that was in cultivation, or ''A. hypogaea'' in the early phase of domestication. They were found in Peru, where dry climatic conditions are favorable for the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister. Many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art. Cultivation was well-established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived. There, the

conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, O ...

s found the (the plant's

Nahuatl Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller ...

name, hence the name in Spanish ''cacahuete'') offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan. European traders later spread the peanut worldwide, and cultivation is now widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. In West Africa, it substantially replaced a crop plant from the same family, the Bambara groundnut, whose seed pods also develop underground. In Asia, it became an agricultural mainstay, and this region is now the largest producer in the world. In the English-speaking world, peanut growing is most important in the United States. It was mainly a garden crop for much of the colonial period before shifting to mostly

animal feed Animal feed is food given to domestic animals, especially livestock, in the course of animal husbandry. There are two basic types: fodder and forage. Used alone, the word ''feed'' more often refers to fodder. Animal feed is an important input to ...

stock until human consumption grew in the 1930s.Putnam, D.H., et al. (1991
Peanut
. University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension: Alternative Field Crops Manual. The United States Department of Agriculture initiated a program to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of peanuts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Peanut butter Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground, dry-roasted peanuts. It commonly contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is consumed in many countri ...

was developed in the 1880s and 1890s in the United States and Canada.

Botany

The peanut is an annual herbaceous plant growing tall. As a legume, it belongs to the botanical family

Fabaceae The Fabaceae or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomenc ...

, also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the legume, bean, or pea family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor

nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their

s. The

leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...

are opposite and pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet); each leaflet is long and across. Like those of many other legumes, the leaves are nyctinastic; that is, they have "sleep" movements, closing at night. The flowers are across, and yellowish orange with reddish veining. They are borne in axillary clusters on the stems above ground and last for just one day. The ovary is located at the base of what appears to be the flower stem but is a highly elongated

floral cup In angiosperms, a hypanthium or floral cup is a structure where basal portions of the calyx, the corolla, and the stamens form a cup-shaped tube. It is sometimes called a floral tube, a term that is also used for corolla tube and calyx tube. It ...

. Peanut fruits develop underground, an unusual feature known as geocarpy. After fertilization, a short stalk at the base of the ovary — often termed a gynophore, but which appears to be part of the ovary — elongates to form a thread-like structure known as a "peg." This peg grows into the soil, allowing the fruit to develop underground. These pods, technically called legumes, are long, normally containing one to four seeds. The shell of the peanut fruit consists primarily of a mesocarp with several large veins traversing its length.

Parts

Parts of the peanut include: * Shell – outer covering, in contact with soil * Cotyledons (two) – the main edible part * Seed coat – brown paper-like covering of the edible part * Radicle – embryonic root at the bottom of the cotyledon, which can be snapped off *

Plumule A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (embr ...

– embryonic shoot emerging from the top of the radicle

Cultivation

Peanuts grow best in light, sandy

loam Loam (in geology and soil science) is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > ), silt (particle size > ), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < ). By weight, its mineral composition is about 40–40–20% concentration of sand–sil ...

soil with a pH of 5.9–7. Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate properly, peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen-containing fertilizer, and they improve

soil fertility Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality.

. Therefore, they are valuable in crop rotations. Also, the yield of the peanut crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases, pests, and weeds. For example, in Texas, peanuts in a three-year rotation with corn yield 50% more than nonrotated peanuts. Adequate levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields.Baughman, Todd; Grichar, James; Black, Mark; Woodward, Jason; Porter, Pat; New, Leon; Baumann, Paul; McFarland, Mark
Texas Peanut Production Guide
" (PDF). Texas A&M University. Retrieved October 16, 2015, Peanuts need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop well. They can be grown with as little as of water, but for best yields need at least . Depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut, harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies ''A. h. fastigiata'' types, and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspecies ''A. h. hypogaea'' types. Subspecies ''A. h. hypogaea'' types yield more and are usually preferred where the growing seasons are sufficiently long. Peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing; therefore, some pods are immature even when they are ready for harvest. To maximize yield, the timing of harvest is important. If it is too early, too many pods will be unripe; if too late, the pods will snap off at the stalk and remain in the soil. For harvesting, the entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil. The pods are covered with a network of raised veins and are constricted between seeds. The main yield-limiting factors in semiarid regions are drought and high-temperature stress. The stages of reproductive development before flowering, at flowering, and at early pod development are particularly sensitive to these constraints. Apart from nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, other nutrient deficiencies causing significant yield losses are calcium, iron and

boron Boron is a chemical element with the symbol B and atomic number 5. In its crystalline form it is a brittle, dark, lustrous metalloid; in its amorphous form it is a brown powder. As the lightest element of the ''boron group'' it has th ...

. Biotic stresses mainly include pests, diseases, and weeds. Among insects pests, pod borers, aphids, and mites are of importance. The most important diseases are leaf spots, rusts, and the toxin-producing fungus Aspergillus. Harvesting occurs in two stages. In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground, shakes it, then inverts it, leaving the plant upside down to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand. After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush. peanuts must be dried properly and stored in dry conditions. If they are too high in moisture, or if storage conditions are poor, they may become infected by the mold fungus '' Aspergillus flavus''. Many strains of this fungus release toxic and highly carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins.

Cultivars in the United States

There are many peanut cultivars grown around the world. The market classes grown in the United States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. Peanut production in the United States is divided into three major areas: the southeastern United States region which includes Alabama, Georgia, and Florida; the southwestern United States region which includes New Mexico,

Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw language, Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the nor ...

, and Texas; and the third region in the general eastern United States which includes Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. In Georgia,

Naomi Chapman Woodroof Naomi Chapman Woodroof (February 5, 1900 – January 4, 1989) was an American agriculturalist known for increasing peanut yields five-fold. She was the first woman to attend and graduate from the University of Idaho College of Agriculture and ac ...

is responsible for developing the breeding program of peanuts resulting in a harvest almost five times greater. Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular characteristics, such as differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance. Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and

peanut butter Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground, dry-roasted peanuts. It commonly contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is consumed in many countri ...

Spanish group

The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa and the southwestern and southeastern United States. Until 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in the US state of Georgia were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, more disease-resistant cultivars. Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts. In the United States, the Spanish group is primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish,' 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish,' 'Argentine,' 'Spantex,' 'Spanette,' 'Shaffers Spanish,' 'Natal Common (Spanish),' "White Kernel Varieties,' 'Starr,' 'Comet,' 'Florispan,' 'Spanhoma,' 'Spancross,' 'OLin,' 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899–14', 'Spanco,' 'Wilco I,' 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'.

Runner group

Since 1940, the southeastern US region has seen a shift to producing Runner group peanuts. This shift is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics, and higher yields when compared to Spanish types, leading to food manufacturers' preference for the use in peanut butter and salted nuts. Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner-type. Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie Runner,' 'Early Runner,' 'Virginia Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner,' 'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'), 'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North Carolina Runner 56-15', 'Florunner,' 'Virugard,' 'Georgia Green,' 'Tamrun 96', 'Flavor Runner 458', 'Tamrun OL01', 'Tamrun OL02' 'AT-120', 'Andru-93', 'Southern Runner,' 'AT1-1', 'Georgia Brown,' 'GK-7', and 'AT-108'.

Virginia group

The large-seeded Virginia group peanuts are grown in the US states of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to the demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in shells. Virginia group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of , and a spread of , with rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within of the base of the plant. Cultivars of Virginia-type peanuts include 'NC 7', 'NC 9', 'NC 10C', 'NC-V 11', 'VA 93B', 'NC 12C', 'VA-C 92R', 'Gregory,' 'VA 98R', 'Perry,' 'Wilson, 'Hull,' 'AT VC-2' and 'Shulamit.'

Valencia group

Valencia group peanuts are coarse and have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. In the United States, large commercial production is primarily in the South Plains of West Texas and in eastern New Mexico near and south of

Portales In Mexico, ''portales'' (Spanish for " portals") refers to an arcaded building that serves as a commercial complex. These are usually in rural towns and are located in the town's centre. The town ''plaza'' and ''iglesia'' are sometimes situated n ...

, but they are grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best-flavored and preferred type for

boiled peanuts Boiled peanuts are popular in some places where peanuts are common. Fully mature peanuts do not make good quality boiled peanuts; rather raw, or green ones are used. ''Raw'' denotes peanuts in a semi-mature state, having achieved full size but no ...

. They are comparatively tall, reaching a height of and a spread of . Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three- to five-seeded and smooth, with no constriction of the shell between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g. This type is used heavily for selling roasted and salted in-shell peanuts and peanut butter. Varieties include 'Valencia A' and 'Valencia C.'

Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups

These are alike except for the color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the plants are similar to Valencia types, except the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.

Production

In 2020, world production of peanuts (reported as groundnuts in shells) was 54 million tonnes, an 8% increase over 2019 production. China had 34% of global production, followed by India (19%) (table). Other significant producers were Nigeria, the United States, and Sudan.

Food

Whole peanuts

Dry-roasting peanuts is a common form of preparation. Dry peanuts can be roasted in the shell or shelled in a home oven if spread out one layer deep in a pan and baked at a temperature of for 15 to 20 min (shelled) and 20 to 25 min (in shell).

Boiled peanuts Boiled peanuts are popular in some places where peanuts are common. Fully mature peanuts do not make good quality boiled peanuts; rather raw, or green ones are used. ''Raw'' denotes peanuts in a semi-mature state, having achieved full size but no ...

are a popular snack in India, China, West Africa, and the southern United States. In the US South, boiled peanuts are often prepared in briny water and sold in streetside stands. A distinction can be drawn between raw and green peanuts. A green peanut is a term to describe farm-fresh harvested peanuts that have not been dehydrated. They are available from grocery stores, food distributors, and farmers markets during the growing season. Raw peanuts are also uncooked but have been dried/dehydrated and must be rehydrated before boiling (usually in a bowl full of water overnight). Once rehydrated, the raw peanuts are ready to be boiled.

Peanut oil

Peanut oil Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil usually has a mild or neutral flavor but, if made with roasted peanuts, has a stronger peanut flavor and aroma. It is often used in American ...

is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered more healthful than saturated oils and is resistant to

rancidity Rancidification is the process of complete or incomplete autoxidation or hydrolysis of fats and oils when exposed to air, light, moisture, or bacterial action, producing short-chain aldehydes, ketones and free fatty acids. When these processes oc ...

. The several types of peanut oil include aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. Refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws in the United States.

Peanut butter

is a food paste or spread made from

ground Ground may refer to: Geology * Land, the surface of the Earth not covered by water * Soil, a mixture of clay, sand and organic matter present on the surface of the Earth Electricity * Ground (electricity), the reference point in an electrical c ...

dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or

emulsifier An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Altho ...

s. Many companies have added twists on traditionally plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties, such as chocolate, birthday cake, and cinnamon raisin. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavored

granola bar Granola is a breakfast and snack food consisting of rolled oats, nuts, honey or other sweeteners such as brown sugar, and sometimes puffed rice, that is usually baked until crisp, toasted and golden brown. The mixture is stirred while baking to ...

s or croissants and other pastries. The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter, and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.

Peanut flour

Peanut flour Peanut flour is made from crushed, fully or partly defatted peanuts. Peanut flour, depending on the quantity of fat removed, is highly protein-dense, providing up to per . Culinary professionals use peanut flour as a thickener for soups, a flav ...

is used in gluten-free cooking.

Peanut proteins

Peanut protein concentrates and isolates are commercially produced from defatted peanut flour using several methods. Peanut flour concentrates (about 70% protein) are produced from dehulled kernels by removing most of the oil and the water-soluble, non-protein components. Hydraulic pressing, screw pressing, solvent extraction, and pre-pressing followed by solvent extraction may be used for oil removal, after which protein isolation and purification are implemented.

Cuisine

Latin America

Peanuts are particularly common in Peruvian and

Mexican cuisine Mexican cuisine consists of the cooking cuisines and traditions of the modern country of Mexico. Its earliest roots lie in Mesoamerican cuisine. Its ingredients and methods begin with the first agricultural communities such as the Olmec and M ...

, both of which marry indigenous and European ingredients. For instance, in Peru, a popular traditional dish is ''picante de cuy'', a roasted guinea pig served in a sauce of ground peanuts (ingredients native to South America) with roasted onions and garlic (ingredients from European cuisine). Also, in the Peruvian city of

Arequipa Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...

, a dish called ''ocopa'' consists of a smooth sauce of roasted peanuts and

hot peppers Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for t ...

(both native to the region) with roasted onions, garlic, and oil, poured over meat or potatoes. Another example is a

fricassee Fricassee or fricassée is a stew made with pieces of meat that have been browned in butter then served in a sauce flavored with the cooking stock. Fricassee is usually made with chicken, veal or rabbit, with variations limited only by what i ...

combining a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken. These dishes are generally known as ''ajíes'', meaning "hot peppers," such as ''ají de pollo'' and ''ají de mariscos'' (seafood ''ajíes'' may omit peanuts). In Mexico, it is also used to prepare different traditional dishes, such as chicken in peanut sauce (''encacahuatado''), and is used as the main ingredient for the preparation of other famous dishes such as red

pipián A pumpkin seed, also known in North America as a pepita (from the Mexican es, pepita de calabaza, "little seed of squash"), is the edible seed of a pumpkin or certain other cultivars of squash. The seeds are typically flat and asymmetrically ...

mole poblano Mole (or Molé) may refer to: Animals * Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America * Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...

and oaxacan

mole negro Mole, from Nahuatl mōlli (), meaning "sauce", is a traditional sauce and marinade originally used in Mexican cuisine. In contemporary Mexico the term is used for a number of sauces, some quite dissimilar, including mole amarillo or amarillito ( ...

. Likewise, during colonial times in Peru, the Spanish used peanuts to replace nuts unavailable locally but used extensively in Spanish cuisine, such as almonds and pine nuts, typically ground or as a paste mixed with rice, meats, and vegetables for dishes like

rice pilaf Pilaf (North American English, US spelling) or pilau (British English, UK spelling) is a rice dish, or in some regions, a wheat dish, whose recipe usually involves cooking in stock (cooking), stock or broth, adding spices, and other ingredient ...

. Throughout the region, many candies and snacks are made using peanuts. In Mexico, it is common to find them in different presentations as a snack or candy: salty, "Japanese" peanuts, praline, ''enchilados'' or in the form of a traditional sweet made with peanuts and honey called ''palanqueta'', and even as peanut

marzipan Marzipan is a confectionery, confection consisting primarily of sugar, honey, and almond meal (ground almonds), sometimes augmented with almond oil or extract. It is often made into Confectionery, sweets; common uses are chocolate-covered marzi ...

West Asia

Crunchy coated peanuts, called ''kabukim'' in Hebrew, are a popular snack in Israel. ''Kabukim'' are commonly sold by weight at corner stores where fresh nuts and seeds are sold, though they are also available packaged. The coating typically consists of flour, salt, starch, lecithin, and sometimes sesame seeds. The origin of the name is obscure (it may be derived from ''kabuk'', which means nutshell or husk in Turkish). An additional variety of crunchy coated peanuts popular in Israel is "American peanuts." The coating of this variety is thinner but harder to crack. Bamba puffs are a popular snack in Israel. Their shape is similar to

Cheez Doodles Cheez Doodles are a cheese puff produced by Wise Foods. Originally developed and manufactured in 1964 by King Kone Corp. of the Bronx, New York, it became the prevalent cheese puff snack on the East Coast. Description Cheez Doodles are a chees ...

, but they are made of peanuts and corn.

Southeast Asia

Peanuts are also widely used in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as in Malaysia, Vietnam, and Indonesia, where they are typically made into a spicy sauce. Peanuts came to Indonesia from the Philippines, where the legume was derived from Mexico during Spanish colonization. One Philippine dish using peanuts is '' kare-kare'', a mixture of meat and peanut butter. Apart from being used in dishes, fried shelled peanuts are a common inexpensive snack in the Philippines. The peanuts are commonly served plain salted with garlic chips and variants, including adobo and chili flavors. Common Indonesian peanut-based dishes include '' gado-gado'', '' pecel'', '' karedok'', and '' ketoprak'', vegetable salads mixed with peanut sauce, and the peanut-based sauce, '' satay''.

Indian subcontinent

In the Indian subcontinent, peanuts are a light snack, usually roasted and salted (sometimes with the addition of

chilli powder Chili powder (also spelled chile, chilli, or, alternatively, powdered chili) is the dried, pulverized fruit of one or more varieties of chili pepper, sometimes with the addition of other spices (in which case it is also sometimes known as chili p ...

), and often sold roasted in pods or boiled with salt. They are also made into dessert or sweet snack of

peanut brittle Brittle is a type of confection consisting of flat broken pieces of hard sugar candy embedded with nuts such as pecans, almonds, or peanuts, and which are usually less than 1 cm thick. Types It has many variations around the world, such as ''p ...

by processing with refined sugar and

jaggery Jaggery is a traditional non-centrifugal cane sugar consumed in the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is a concentrated product of cane juice and often date or palm sap without separation of the molasses and crystals, and can ...

. Indian cuisine uses roasted, crushed peanuts to give a crunchy body to salads; they are added whole (without pods) to leafy vegetable stews for the same reason. Another use is

peanut oil Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil usually has a mild or neutral flavor but, if made with roasted peanuts, has a stronger peanut flavor and aroma. It is often used in American ...

for cooking. Most Indians use mustard,

sunflower The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a large annual forb of the genus ''Helianthus'' grown as a crop for its edible oily seeds. Apart from cooking oil production, it is also used as livestock forage (as a meal or a silage plant), as ...

, and peanut oil for cooking. In South India, groundnut chutney is eaten with ''dosa'' and ''idli'' as breakfast. Peanuts are also used in sweets and savory items in South India and also as a flavor in tamarind rice.

Kovilpatti Kovilpatti is an Industrial City and Special Grade Municipality in Thoothukudi District in the Indian States of India, state of Tamil Nadu. History The town already existed before 1876. Kovilpatti was a water stop for steam engines after the ...

is known for its sweet peanut chikki or

, which is also used in savory and sweet mixtures, such as Bombay mix.

West Africa

Peanuts grow well in southern Mali and adjacent regions of the

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is ...

, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to the Bambara groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple.

Peanut sauce Peanut sauce, satay sauce (saté sauce), ''bumbu kacang'', ''sambal kacang'', or ''pecel '' is an Indonesian sauce made from ground roasted or fried peanuts, widely used in Indonesian cuisine and many other dishes throughout the world. Peanut s ...

, prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually chicken. Peanuts are used in the Malian meat stew '' maafe''. In Ghana, peanut butter is used for peanut butter soup ''nkate nkwan''.Ghanaian cuisine Crushed peanuts may also be used for peanut candies ''nkate cake'' and ''

kuli-kuli Kuli-kuli is a West African snack primarily made from peanuts. First made by the Nupe People of West Africa it is a popular snack in Nigeria, Benin, northern Cameroon and Ghana. It is often eaten alone or with a mixture of garri also known as cas ...

'', as well as other local foods such as ''oto''. Peanut butter is an ingredient in Nigeria's "African salad." Peanut powder is an important ingredient in the spicy coating for

kebab Kebab (, ; ar, كباب, link=no, Latn, ar, kabāb, ; tr, kebap, link=no, ) or kabob (North American) is a type of cooked meat dish that originates from cuisines of the Middle East. Many variants of the category are popular around the wor ...

s in Nigeria and Ghana.

East Africa

Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompany ''

nshima Ugali or Posho or sima (for others, see ) is a type of maize meal made from maize or corn flour in several countries in Africa. Sima is sometimes made from other flours, such as millet or sorghum flour, and is sometimes mixed with cassava flour. ...

'') eaten in Malawi, and in the eastern part of Zambia, and these dishes are common throughout both countries. Thick peanut butter sauces are also made in Uganda to serve with rice and other starchy foods. Groundnut

stew A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. A stew needs to have raw ingredients added to the gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables and ...

, called ''ebinyebwa'' in

Luganda The Ganda language or Luganda (, , ) is a Bantu language spoken in the African Great Lakes region. It is one of the major languages in Uganda and is spoken by more than 10 million Baganda and other people principally in central Uganda including ...

-speaking areas of Uganda, is made by boiling

peanut flour with other ingredients, such as

cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.&nb ...

, mushrooms, dried fish, meat or other vegetables. Across East Africa, roasted peanuts, often in cones of newspaper, are obtained from

street vendor A hawker is a vendor of merchandise that can be easily transported; the term is roughly synonymous with costermonger or peddler. In most places where the term is used, a hawker sells inexpensive goods, handicrafts, or food items. Whether stationa ...

North America

In Canada and the United States, peanuts are used in candies, cakes, cookies, and other sweets. Individually, they are eaten dry-roasted with or without salt. Ninety-five percent of Canadians eat peanuts or peanut butter, with the average consumption of of peanuts per person annually, and 79% of Canadians consume peanut butter weekly. In the United States, peanuts and peanut butter are central to American dietary practices, and are typically considered as comfort foods. Peanuts were sold at fairs or by pushcart operators through the 19th century. Peanut butter is a common peanut-based food, representing half of the American total peanut consumption and $850 million in annual retail sales.

Peanut soup Peanut soup or groundnut soup is a soup made from peanuts, often with various other ingredients. It is a staple of African cuisine but is also eaten in East Asia (Taiwan), the United States (mainly in Virginia) and other areas around the world. ...

is found on restaurant menus in the southeastern states. In some southern portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist. Peanuts are also deep-fried, sometimes within the shell. Per person, Americans eat of peanut products annually, spending a total of $2 billion in peanut retail purchases.

Malnutrition

Peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut, MANA Nutrition, and Medika Mamba are high-protein, high-energy, and high-nutrient peanut-based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. The World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut Butter, and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries. Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a

lactose Lactose is a disaccharide sugar synthesized by galactose and glucose subunits and has the molecular formula C12H22O11. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk (by mass). The name comes from ' (gen. '), the Latin word for milk, plus the suffix '' - ...

-free, milk-like beverage,

peanut milk Peanut milk is a plant milk, which is an alternative to animal milk. It is made with peanuts, water, and sometimes other additional ingredients like salt, sugar, or cinnamon. Peanut milk is high in fat and protein compared to other plant-based mi ...

, which is promoted in Africa as a way to reduce malnutrition among children.

Animal feed

Peanut plant tops and crop residues can be used for hay.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2017. Peanut forage. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/695 The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as animal feed and soil fertilizer. Groundnut cake is a livestock feed, mostly used by cattle as protein supplements. It is one of the most important and valuable feeds for all types of livestock and one of the most active ingredients for poultry rations. Poor storage of the cake may sometimes result in its contamination by aflatoxin, a naturally occurring mycotoxin that is produced by '' Aspergillus flavus'' and '' Aspergillus parasiticus''. The major constituents of the cake are essential amino acids such as

lysine Lysine (symbol Lys or K) is an α-amino acid that is a precursor to many proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated −C ...

and glutamine. Other components are crude fiber, crude protein, and fat. Some peanuts can also be fed whole to livestock, for example, those over the peanut quota in the US or those with a higher aflatoxin content than that permitted by the food regulations. Peanut processing often requires dehulling: the hulls generated in large amounts by the peanut industries can feed livestock, particularly ruminants.

Industrial use

Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and

nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin (NG), (alternative spelling of nitroglycerine) also known as trinitroglycerin (TNG), nitro, glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), or 1,2,3-trinitroxypropane, is a dense, colorless, oily, explosive liquid most commonly produced by nitrating g ...

are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from

saponified Saponification is a process of converting esters into soaps and alcohols by the action of aqueous alkali (for example, aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions). Soaps are salts of fatty acids, which in turn are carboxylic acids with long carbon chains. ...

oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in

rayon Rayon is a semi-synthetic fiber, made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose, such as wood and related agricultural products. It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. It is also called viscose. Many types and grades of viscose f ...

and paper), and mucilage (glue).

Nutritional value

Peanuts are rich in essential nutrients (right table, USDA nutrient data). In a reference serving, peanuts provide of food energy and are an excellent source (defined as more than 20% of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins, vitamin E, several dietary minerals, such as manganese (95% DV), magnesium (52% DV) and phosphorus (48% DV), and

dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...

(right table). They also contain about 25 g of protein per 100 g serving, a higher proportion than in many tree nuts. Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of

mortality Mortality is the state of being mortal, or susceptible to death; the opposite of immortality. Mortality may also refer to: * Fish mortality, a parameter used in fisheries population dynamics to account for the loss of fish in a fish stock throug ...

from certain diseases. However, the study designs do not allow

cause and effect Causality (also referred to as causation, or cause and effect) is influence by which one event, process, state, or object (''a'' ''cause'') contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (an ''effect'') where the cau ...

to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease." Ranked second after soya beans, peanuts are the world's largest source of vegetable oil. They are the main constituent of margarine and are produced commercially as salad and cooking oil.

Phytochemicals

Peanuts contain polyphenols, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, phytosterols and

in amounts similar to several tree nuts. Peanut skins contain

resveratrol Resveratrol (3,5,4′-trihydroxy-''trans''-stilbene) is a stilbenoid, a type of natural phenol, and a phytoalexin produced by several plants in response to injury or when the plant is under attack by pathogens, such as bacteria or fungi. Sources ...

, which is under preliminary research for its potential effects on humans.

Oil composition

A common

cooking Cooking, cookery, or culinary arts is the art, science and craft of using heat to Outline of food preparation, prepare food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric ...

and salad oil, peanut oil is 46% monounsaturated fats (primarily oleic acid), 32%

polyunsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fats are fats in which the constituent hydrocarbon chain possesses two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Polyunsaturated fat can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and oysters. "Unsaturated" refers to the fact tha ...

s (primarily linoleic acid), and 17% saturated fats (primarily palmitic acid). Extractable from whole peanuts using a simple water and

centrifugation Centrifugation is a mechanical process which involves the use of the centrifugal force to separate particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, medium viscosity and rotor speed. The denser components of the mixture migrate ...

method, the oil is being considered by NASA's Advanced Life Support program for future long-duration human space missions.

Health concerns

Allergies

Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut and can range from watery eyes to

anaphylactic shock Anaphylaxis is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of use of emergency medication on site. It typically causes more than one of the follow ...

, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanuts can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, avoiding peanuts can be difficult. Reading ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods processed in facilities that also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross-contamination with peanuts and peanut products (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice of which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware. The hygiene hypothesis of allergy states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies. Studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel showed that delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut allergies. Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive. Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products. Some school districts in the United States and elsewhere have banned peanuts or products containing peanuts. However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A recent study in Canada has shown that there is no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts than in schools allowing them. Refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies. However, crude (unrefined) peanut oils have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic reactions. In a randomized, double-blind crossover study, 60 people with proven peanut allergy were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors concluded, "Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided." They also stated, "Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with peanut allergy." However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose a risk to peanut-allergic individuals if the oil that has previously been used for cooking foods containing peanuts is reused.

Contamination with aflatoxin

If peanut plants are subjected to severe drought during pod formation, or if pods are not properly stored, they may become contaminated with the mold '' Aspergillus flavus'' which may produce carcinogenic substances called

aflatoxins Aflatoxins are various toxicity, poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain Mold (fungus), molds, particularly ''Aspergillus'' species. The fungi grow in soil, decaying vegetation and various staple food, staple foodstuffs a ...

. Lower-quality peanuts, particularly where mold is evident, are more likely to be contaminated. The United States Department of Agriculture tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin; any containing aflatoxin levels of more than 15 parts per billion are destroyed. The peanut industry has manufacturing steps to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin. Peanuts tested to have high aflatoxin are used to make peanut oil where the mold can be removed.

Gallery

File:Nut warning 1.jpg, A warning sign for the presence of peanuts and peanut dust File:Arachis hypogaea Flower.jpg, ''Arachis hypogaea'' flower File:Peanut stalks.jpg, Peanut pegs penetrating the ground File:Peanut closeup.jpg, Textural detail File:Closeup of Peanuts, selling at a market in Jagadishpur Hat.jpg, Closeup of Peanuts, selling in India. File:Developing pods of Peanut.jpg, Developing pods of peanut File:Peanut harvester.JPG, Track-type peanut harvester File:Peanut Collection (8074787813).jpg, Harvesting peanuts by hand (

Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...

, 2012) File:SevMamra.jpg, A bowl of sev mamra, consisting of puffed rice, peanuts and fried seasoned noodles File:Peanut chikki, a popular foodstuff of jaggery and peanut is available commercially all over India.jpg, Peanut sweet known as chikki made from peanuts and

References

External links

{{Authority control Arachis Convenience foods Crops originating from indigenous Americans Crops originating from South America Crops Edible legumes Edible nuts and seeds Nitrogen-fixing crops Oil seeds Plants described in 1753 Snack foods Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus