Paulus Catena ('the Chain' or 'the Fetter') ('' fl.'' 350s, d. 361/2) was a senior

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...

public official who served as an investigator and

notary A notary is a person authorised to perform acts in legal affairs, in particular witnessing signatures on documents. The form that the notarial profession takes varies with local legal systems. A notary, while a legal professional, is disti ...

for

Constantius II Constantius II (Latin: ''Flavius Julius Constantius''; grc-gre, Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germani ...

during the mid- fourth century.Seeck 1906, p. 233 He is principally known through the writings of

Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally Anglicisation, anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Ancient history, antiquity (preceding Procopius). His w ...

, though he is also present in the works of

Libanius Libanius ( grc-gre, Λιβάνιος, Libanios; ) was a teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school in the Eastern Roman Empire. His prolific writings make him one of the best documented teachers of higher education in the ancient world and a criti ...

and

Julian the Apostate Julian ( la, Flavius Claudius Julianus; grc-gre, Ἰουλιανός ; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplato ...

. Marcellinus describes him as infamously cruel, and a skilled fabricator of false accusations.Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'', XIV.V.§6-9, XV.III.§3-4, XV.VI.§1-4, XIX.XII.§1-16, XXII.III.§11

Biography

Background, Reputation, and General Character

Little is known of Paulus' personal life or background. He was a native of Spain and Marcellinus reports that he had a "smooth countenance." Before obtaining his position as an imperial aid, he was a steward of the emperor's table. The exact office he held while in the emperor's service is unclear: Modern sources follow Marcellinus in calling him a ''notarius'' (notary) but

Philostorgius Philostorgius ( grc-gre, Φιλοστόργιος; 368 – c. 439 AD) was an Anomoean Church historian of the 4th and 5th centuries. Very little information about his life is available. He was born in Borissus, Cappadocia to Eulampia and Cart ...

calls him a clerk, and Marcellinus also alludes to him at one point holding a "receivership" in the provinces.Smith 1872, p. 155 Whatever his official title, his role in Constantus' service was multifaceted: he served as special investigator and judge in cases of suspected treason, "hatchet-man" in rooting out supporters of suppressed rebellions, and as one of Constantius' insiders in rival centers of political power.Norman 1969, p. 111 n. d The ancient sources assign Paulus a poor reputation and character. Julian calls him a notorious fabricator of false charges and asserts that he was "detested even while he flourished."Wright 1923, p. 183. N.B., This letter of Julian (''Λιωανίῳ'') is numbered 53 by Wright, 97 by Bidez-Cumont, 75 by Heyler, 74 by Seeck (probably an error for 75 in Heyler)

also accuses him of prosecuting false charges, and says that "In Europe and in Asia he deserved to die thousands of times, so that those who knew the fellow were aggrieved that they could not put him to death over and over again."Norman 1969, ''Or.'' 14.§15 (p. 111); ''Or.'' 18.§152 (p. 377-8) Marcellinus' account is particularly disparaging throughout. It is also the only source which mentions Paulus'

cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; plural ''cognomina''; from ''con-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became here ...

'Catena,' offering two accounts of how Paulus earned the name: in the first, Paulus is said to have earned the name on account of his skill in complex interrogations; in the second, on account of his skill in creating calumnies.

Activities

In 353 he was dispatched to

Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...

by Constantius to arrest certain former supporters of the usurper

Magnentius Magnus Magnentius ( 303 – 11 August 353) was a Roman general and usurper against Constantius II from 350 to 353. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction in Gaul under the Western emperor Constans. On 18 January 350 Magnentius ...

, who had been

defeated Defeated may refer to: *Defeated (Breaking Benjamin song), "Defeated" (Breaking Benjamin song) *Defeated (Anastacia song), "Defeated" (Anastacia song) *"Defeated", a song by Snoop Dogg from the album ''Bible of Love'' *Defeated, Tennessee, an unin ...

earlier in the year. According to Marcellinus, once Paulus arrived, he widened his remit and began arresting other figures on entirely trumped-up charges. Marcellinus reports that Paulus' methods were so extreme and so unjust that eventually the

vicarius ''Vicarius'' is a Latin word, meaning ''substitute'' or ''deputy''. It is the root of the English word "vicar". History Originally, in ancient Rome, this office was equivalent to the later English " vice-" (as in "deputy"), used as part of th ...

of Britain,

Flavius Martinus Flavius Martinus was a vicarius of Roman Britain c. 353 under Constantius II. He tried to control the violent recriminations following the defeat of Magnentius. Martinus tried to rein in the vengeance of Constantius' notary Paulus Catena who had ...

, although a loyal supporter of Constantius, intervened. Threatening to resign, he attempted to persuade Paulus to release the innocent prisoners he had taken, or at least to slow down his inquisitorial activity. Paulus refused. He turned on Martinus, falsely and publicly accusing him and other senior officers in Britain of

treason Treason is the crime of attacking a state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplo ...

and threatening to take them to the emperor's court in chains. In either desperation or rage, Martinus attacked Paulus with a sword. However, the attack failed and the ''vicarius'' committed suicide. Paulus seems to have been involved in the fall of

Constantius Gallus Flavius Claudius Constantius Gallus (326–354) was a statesman and ruler in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire from 351 to 354, as ''Caesar'' under emperor Constantius II (), his cousin. A grandson of emperor Constantius Chlorus () and ...

in 354, or perhaps merely in the trials that followed. Philostorgius adds that Paulus "had been one who had often displayed particular hostility to Gallus in his actions," though no details are known. Following Marcellinus' account, Paulus was in

Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...

in 355, rooting out supporters of the usurper Silvanus. He reportedly had several

count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...

s killed, and tortured at least one individual almost to death. In the years between 355 and 359 Paulus' movements are not known. However, modern scholars argue that it is likely Paulus spent all or some of this time in Julian's court. Whether his role was as a spy for Constantius (as conjectured by

Otto Seeck Otto Karl Seeck (2 February 1850 – 29 June 1921) was a German classical historian who is perhaps best known for his work on the decline of the ancient world. He was born in Riga. He first began studying chemistry at the University of Dorpat but ...

) or simply as a courtier is not known. Evidence for his presence in Julian's court comes from two sources: 1. In Julian's ''Letter to the Senate and People of Athens'', he states that Constantius "hired

aulus Aulus (abbreviated A.) is one of the small group of common forenames found in the culture of ancient Rome. The name was traditionally connected with Latin ''aula'', ''olla'', "palace", but this is most likely a false etymology. ''Aulus'' in fact p ...

to attack me."Wright 1913, p. 177-8 (282C) 2. In 358 Libanius wrote to Paulus, thanking him for urging Julian to write to him. In 359, Paulus (accompanied by the '' comes Oreientis''

Modestus Modestus was a Roman cognomen. It may refer to: * Julius Modestus (1st century BC), Roman freedman and grammarian * Marcus Mettius Modestus (procurator) (1st century AD), Roman governor of Egypt * Aufidius Modestus (1st century AD), Roman philo ...

) was sent to the Roman East with general instructions to root out traitors and broad authority to conduct trials. Marcellinus adds that he was particularly interested in investigating certain parchment scrolls left in the temple of the

oracle An oracle is a person or agency considered to provide wise and insightful counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. As such, it is a form of divination. Description The word '' ...

Bes BES or Bes may refer to: * Bes, Egyptian deity * Bes (coin), Roman coin denomination * Bes (Marvel Comics), fictional character loosely based on the Egyptian deity Abbreviations * Bachelor of Environmental Studies, a degree * Banco Espírito ...

a, bearing the prayers and wishes of supplicants. The historian implies that the real parchments were entirely inoffensive, but that they were incredibly easy to forge, and thus gave Paulus the ability to try and convict anyone. In any case, Paulus set up a court at Scythopolis and tried several people. He tried and convicted

Aristophanes of Corinth Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion ( la, Cydathenaeum), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his fo ...

(a friend of Libanius') of certain fiscal crimes. After Julian's ascension in 361, Libanius appealed to the emperor on behalf of Aristophanes. Julian granted a pardon to the man, clearing Aristophanes of, in Julian's words, all "the malicious charges of Paul." On June 23, 359 Paulus appeared in Alexandria and acted with imperial authority to punish the opponents of Bishop

George of Cappadocia George of Cappadocia (Greek: Γεώργιος ό Καππάδοκης) died 24 December 361) was the intruding Arian bishop of Alexandria from 356 until his martyrdom. George was born, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, at Epiphania in Cilicia ...

. The describes him publishing an imperial order, indicating the extent of his power in this period.''Historia Acephala'', section 7: Larsow 1852, p. 37; Fromen 1914, p. 73; Schaff 1995 p. 497 In late 361 or early 362, upon the ascent of Julian to the emperorship, Paulus was condemned to death by the

Chalcedon tribunal Shortly after the death of Roman emperor Constantius II, his successor Julian held a tribunal at the city of Chalcedon, which was then a suburb of Constantinople. Saturninius Secundus Salutius, who was raised to the rank of Praetorian Prefect was ...

. He was

burned alive ''Burned Alive: A Victim of the Law of Men'' is a best-selling book, ostensibly a first-person account of an attempted honor killing. The author, Souad, is described as a Palestinian woman now living in Europe who survived an attempted murder by ...

. It is possible that, in prescribing this sentence (or perhaps in convicting Paulus at all), the commission was acting on Julian's explicit orders: Philostorgius reports that " ulian sent Paulusto Chalcedon, where he exacted satisfaction from im"

Legacy

Paulus remains a minor character in the history of the

Constantinian dynasty The Constantinian dynasty is an informal name for the ruling family of the Roman Empire from Constantius Chlorus (died 306) to the death of Julian in 363. It is named after its most famous member, Constantine the Great, who became the sole rule ...

. Many scholars, including

Gibbon Gibbons () are apes in the family Hylobatidae (). The family historically contained one genus, but now is split into four extant genera and 20 species. Gibbons live in subtropical and tropical rainforest from eastern Bangladesh to Northeast India ...

, see him as an exemplification of Constantius' paranoid reign, and contend that Constantius bears the ultimate responsibility for Paulus' perversions of justice. Though few historical events can be definitively classified as results of Paulus' actions, Thomas Wright asserts that Paulus' destabilization of the Roman administration in Britain allowed the hostile

Picts The Picts were a group of peoples who lived in what is now northern and eastern Scotland (north of the Firth of Forth) during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Where they lived and what their culture was like can be inferred from ea ...

and Scots to invade and pillage Roman settlements.Wright 1861, p. 118-119

Notes

References

Sources

Ancient Sources

, ''Res Gestae'' **Henderson, Jeffrey (ed.), Rolfe, J.C. (trans.), ''Ammianus Marcellinus: History''. 3 Vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online a
LacusCurtius
an
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Accessed 13 September 2022. **Yonge, Charles Duke (trans.), ''The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens''. London: G. Bell and Sons LTD, 1911. Online a

Accessed 13 September 2022. * nonymous Annalist ' **Fromen, Heinz, ''Athanasii historia acephala''. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. 1914. Online a
The Internet Archive
Accessed 13 September 2022. **Larsow, F., ''Die Fest-Briefe des Heiligen Athanasius, Bischofs von Alexandria''. Leipzig, Göttingen; 1852, Online a
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an
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Accessed 13 September 2022. **Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry (eds.), "Introduction. Historia Acephala and Festal Index" in ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers; Volume 4: Athanasius: Select Works and Letters'', Second Series. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., originally published 1892

Archibald Robertson Archibald or Archie Robertson may refer to: Sports *Archie Robertson (footballer) (1929–1978), Scottish footballer * Archie Robertson (shinty player) (born 1950), ex-shinty player Others *Archibald Robertson (painter) (1765–1835), Scottish bor ...

], reprinted June 1995. Online a
The Internet Archive
* Julian **''Letter to the Senate and People of Athens'' ***Wright, Wilmer Cave (trans.), ''The Works of the Emperor Julian'', Vol. 2. London: Heinemann, New York: Macmillan; 1913. Online a
The Internet Archive
an

Accessed 14 September 2022. **''Letters'' (''Epistulae'') ***Bidez, I., Cumont, F. (eds.), ''Imp. Caesaris Flavii Vlaudii Iuliani: Epistulae Leges Poematia Fragmenta Varia''. Paris: Société D'édition «''Les Belles Lettres''», London: Milford, Oxford University Press; 1922. Online a
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Accessed 14 September 2022. ***Heyler, Ludwig Henrich (ed. & trans.), ''Juliani Imperator quae Feruntur Epistolae''. Moguntiae, 1828. Online a
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an
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Accessed 14 September 2022. ***Wright, Wilmer Cave (trans.), ''The Works of the Emperor Julian'', Vol. 3. London: Heinemann, New York: Macmillan; 1923. Online a
The Internet Archive
an

Accessed 14 September 2022. *

**''Orations'' ***Norman, A. F. (ed. & trans.), ''Libanius: Selected Orations'', Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969. Online a
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Accessed 14 September 2022. **''Letters'' ***Foerster, Richard (ed.), ''Libanii Opera'', Vol X: Epistulae 1–839. Hildescheim: Verlangsbuchhandlung, 1963. Online a
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Accessed 18 September 2022. ***Norman, A. F. (ed. & trans.), ''Libanius: Autobiography and Selected Letters'', 2 Vols.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. Online at Loeb Classics
Vol. 1Vol. 2
. Accessed 18 September 2022. ***Wolf, Johannes Christopher (ed. & trans.), ''Libanii Sophistae Epistolae''. Amsterdam: Jannssonio Waesbergios, 1738. Online a
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Accessed 18 September 2022. *

, ''Church History'' ow lost, relevant portions surviving in '**Amidon, Philip R., S.J, ''Philostorgius:'' Church History. Society of Biblical Literature; Atlanta, 2007. Online a
The Internet Archive
Accessed 15 September 2022. **

John of Damascus John of Damascus ( ar, يوحنا الدمشقي, Yūḥanna ad-Dimashqī; gr, Ἰωάννης ὁ Δαμασκηνός, Ioánnēs ho Damaskēnós, ; la, Ioannes Damascenus) or John Damascene was a Christian monk, priest, hymnographer, and a ...

; Kotter, Bonifatius (ed.), "Passio Magni Martyris Artemii" in ''Dei Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos'', Vol. V; in series ''Patristische Texte un Studien'', Band 29. Berlin, New York: Walter De Gruyter. Online a
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**Lieu, Samuel N. C.; Montserrat, Dominic (eds.), "The Artemii Passio" in ''From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A source history''. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. Online a
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Accessed 15 September 2022.

Modern Sources

* *

Gibbon, Edward Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is k ...

, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. London: Strahan & Cadell, first published 1776–1789. * Seeck, Otto, ''Die Briefe des Libanius Zeitlich Geordnet''. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1906. Online a
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Accessed 14 September 2022. * Seeck, Otto, ''Geschichte des Untergangs der Antiken Welt'', Vol. IV. Bernlin: Franz Siemenroth, 1911. Online a
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Accessed 14 September 2022. * Smith, William, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', Volume III: Oareses-Zygia. London: Murray. 1872. Online a
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*Williams, Sean Robert, ''Ammianus and Constantius: The Portrayal of a Tyrant in the'' Res Gestae. University of Tennessee. December 2009. * Wright, Thomas, ''The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon: A History of the Early Inhabitants of Britain'', Second Edition. London: Arthur Hall, 1861. Online a
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an
Hathi Trust
Accessed 14 September 2022. {{Refend 362 deaths 4th-century Romans Ancient Roman jurists Ancient Romans in Britain Executed ancient Roman people Notaries People executed by burning People executed by the Roman Empire Romans from unknown gentes Year of birth unknown