Pronouns
* Note: هغه as a demonstrative pronoun (that) has initial stress ''háğawhereas the personal pronoun (he, she, it) has final stress ağáPersonal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Possessive pronouns
There is no plural form with nouns.Interrogative pronouns
Indefinite
* In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ 'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ 'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ 'something'. * When هر /har, ar/ 'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone ر څوک everything ر څه each one ر یوNouns
Case and gender
Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative (also known as oblique II) and vocative. The oblique case is used asClass 1
Masculine nouns
Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان ''-ā́n'' in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه ''-úna''. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ ''meṛә́'' "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه ''meṛúna'', and پل ''pul'' "bridge" is animate — پلان ''pulā́n''. The nouns ending in -i, -ā (these are always animate) or -u (these can be both animate and inanimate) take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels. Words ending in -āCә́ pattern (like وادۀ wādә́ "wedding") have short -a- in plural.Feminine nouns
Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings. In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه ''stә́rga'' "eye" and لار ''lār'' "way" would be سترګې ''stә́rge'' and لارې ''lā́re'' in the North, but سترګي ''stә́rgi'' and لاري ''lā́ri'' in the South, while مڼه ''maṇá'' "apple" and تخته ''taxtá'' "board" would be مڼې ''maṇé'' and تختې ''taxté'' in both dialect groups. There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې ''-yā́ne'' in the plural) and -ā or -o (they take either ګانې ''-gā́ne'' or وې ''-we''). In Southern Pashto they are یاني ''-yā́ni'', ګاني ''-gā́ni'' and وي ''-wi'' (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns).Class 2
In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms. Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور ''tanúr'' "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز ''paléz'' "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes. There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه ''melma'' "guest", اسبه ''asba'' "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ''ğoba'' "(cow) shepherd", کوربه ''korba'' "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2. Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ''ğar'' "mountain", ور ''war'' "door", ګز ''gaz'' "gaz (unit of length)", من ''man'' "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ''ṭağar'' "rug" take ونه ''-úna'' in the plural form (غرونه ''ğrúna'', ورونه ''warúna''/''wrúna'' etc). Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take (or not take) -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن.Class 3
Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e. Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto. Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here.Uncountable nouns
They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms. Feminine Examples include اوړه ṛә́ – flour اوبه bә́ -water پۍ ə́i – milketc. Example: اوبه – water Example: پۍ – milk Masculine Examples include: ږدن ̌dәn -sorghum دال āl -lentils شراب arā́b – alcohol Example: دال – lentilsIrregular nouns
These are limited to nouns denoting kinship. Feminine – "or" stem These include: مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/ خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/ ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/ نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/ Example: Brother and daughter ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural SonAdjectives
An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto تاينوم The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. Notes: *In the plural, both obliques and the vocative merge into a single form. *Singular Oblique I and plural Direct always merge into a single form. *The above two conditions mean that there can be at most five distinct forms for masculine adjectives (but in fact, no class distinguishes more than four). *For feminine adjectives, singular Oblique I and Vocative merge, while singular Direct and Oblique II merge; combined with mergers noted previously, there can be at most three distinct forms for feminine adjectives. *Categories 2 and 3 have stem and stress alternations among different cases. Category 3 has a basic distinction between the masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, with stem stress, and all other forms, with a (sometimes) different stem and with ending stress (e.g. masc. ''trīx'', fem. ''traxá'' "bitter"; masc. ''sūr'', fem. ''srá'' "red"; masc. ''sōṛ'', fem. ''saṛá'' "cold"; fem. ''raṇā'' "light" with only one stem). Category 2 has the same stress alternation, but has three distinct stems, with stressed stem vowel 'o' or 'u' in masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, unstressed stem vowel 'ā' in masculine singular Oblique I and plural Direct, and unstressed stem vowel 'a' in all other forms (e.g. masc. sing. ''pōx'', masc. plur. ''pāxǝ́'', fem. ''paxá'' "ripe, cooked").Class 1
Case-marking suffixes
Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.Stem allomorphy
In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either: # Vowel harmony or # Centralization In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.=Vowel harmony
= Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.=Centralization
= Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.Class I forms with stem allomorphy
Example 1 = سپک (light – ''in'' ''weight'') The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule. Example 2 = زړور (brave) The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.Animacy
When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example:Class 2
Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( ه /‑ə́/). Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed) is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.Case-marking suffixes
Stem allomorphy
Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives (which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are: # Syncope I # Back vowel lowering # Monophthongization # Lengthening # Syncope II # Epenthesis=Syncope I
= * V2 → Ø/ V́1_ * V́1 → Ø/ _V́2 If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives. Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/ Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.=Back vowel lowering
= * V-stress] back, → V[-high C_ Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed. In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.=Monophthongization
= * a[+stress]w → V-high] [+back, * wa[+stress] → V-high] [+back, In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem [usually seen in the feminine tense], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed. Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /''tawd''/.=Lengthening
= * a → ā /_(C)Cə́ Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.=Lengthening
= * V=Epenthesis
= * Ø → a/C_CC or CC_C If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.Class 3
These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.Case-marking suffixes
Stressed UnstressedStressed
Example = زلمی (young/youth – ''the ی is stressed'')Unstressed
Example = سوی (burnt- ''the ی is unstressed'')Class 4
This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction. But some speakers use the oblique suffixes و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases. Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing) Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect)Derivational affixes
Pashto utilitiesPrefixes
These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones: A list of examples:Suffixes
These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones: A list of examples:Creating new words
Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes Example:Infinitive
This is called Kaṛnúmay ړنومیin Pashto that is "the name of a verb". It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun. Example: وکړل ast perfective tense of the transitive verb کول – "to do"shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.Double infinitives
These are formed by combining two infinitivesVerb
*Pashto has threeVerbs: categories
Simple verbs
They are in the morpheme state. Examples:Prefixed verbs
These are described below as doubly irregular. They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.Deictic prefixed verb
These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.Non-productive prefixed verbs
Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of. Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix رېis separated from the verb stem ولby a second position clitic ېa-initial verbs
These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/. Examples: Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that they take the prefix و /wə́/ for perfective forms. Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress. Example: initial stress Example: non-initial stressCompound verbs
There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.First category
These are formed by adding ول wә́land ېدل dә́lverbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel. Example:= Exceptions
= There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.Second category
These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel. Examples:Verbs: conjugation classes
These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above: * First Conjugation Class: Simple Verbs and A-Initial Verbs * Second Conjugation Class: Prefixed Verbs * Third Conjugation Class: Compound VerbsVerbs: bases
Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb. Aspect The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs refixed verbs, a-initial and compound verbsby stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement. Tense The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives). For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives). For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy. Bases Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases: 1. present perfective 2. present imperfective 3. past perfective 4. past impefective Inflection In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases: * a verbal suffix * an imperative or optative suffix, or * an adjectival suffix (to form a participle)Verbs: Single Stems
These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle. These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.First Conjugation Class
Transitve
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie" Notes: * present imperfective base = stem * present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem * past imperfective base: stem+ ل /ə́l/ (suffix obligatory) * past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ل /əl/(suffix obligatory)Intransitve
Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach" Notes: * present imperfective base: stem+ ېږ /eg/ * present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ېږ /eg/ * past imperfective base: stem + ېد /ed/ (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere) * past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem + ېد /ed/( + ل /əl/— prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)Second Conjugation Class
In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix. Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)" Notes: * present imperfective base = stem * present perfective base: stressed prefix + stem * past imperfective base: prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory) * past perfective base: stressed prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)Verbs: Two Stems
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.First Conjugation Class
The stems can either share initial sounds as in example: Or they can be share no similar sounds Example: the verb لیدلSecond Conjugation Class
As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix. Example one: the verb پرېښودل o leave Notes: * present imperfective base = present stem * present perfective base: stressed prefix + present stem * past imperfective base: prefix + past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc.; optional elsewhere) * past perfective base: stressed prefix + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)Verbs: Multiple Stems
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle. These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables. These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged: Examples: Observation: either three stemmed د, کېږد, کېښودor four stemmed ښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود Observation: Four stems Observation: Four Stems Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور Observation:Three stems:وړ ṛfor imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem s illustrated with پرېوتل above Notes: • Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem • Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem • Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere) • Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)کول and کېدل
Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular. To the verb – to become Notes: • Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem • Present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present perfective stem • Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere) • Past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)Verbs: aspect
Pashto in every tense has anStress
In both aspects the stress ">جis applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.First conjugation
First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/. Example:Second conjugation
These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme. Example:Third conjugation
These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by: * shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective * using the irregular perfective forms of the verbalizer (rather than the forms with و /wə́/). Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer. Example 1: Example 2:Verbs: verbal suffixes
Pashto utilises verbal suffixes کړ تاړيPersonal suffixes
Verbal suffixes in Pashto denotePresent imperfective tense
Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb ''gaḍedəl'' o dancePast imperfective tense
Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb ''gaḍēdəl'' o dance Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender. ''Example:'' * هغوی ګډېدل hey were dancing– can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing * هغوی ګډېدې hey were dancing– implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders يجړاګانby itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.3rd Person Past Singular Masculine
Generally ه or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ iis found also.Plural suffix of وتل watəl
With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:Verbs: agreement
Intransitive verbs
As can be seen from the intransitive verb above ډېدل– the verb agrees with the subject.Agreement – transitive verbs
* Ergative construction is used in the past tense ofCompound transitive verbs – split agreement
In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول o doagrees with the subject. Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object. Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to cleanVerbs: participle
Present participle
The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay). Example ليکل ikəˈl– writer → ليک ikpast imperfective stem → ليکونکی ikəwúnkay– writerPast participle
Past participle suffix
The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.Present perfect
This is formed in the following ways: Category 1 on-compound verbs Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be" Category 2 ompound verbs Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be" Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدلFuture perfect
Formed by به uture marker+present perfectPast perfect
This is formed in the following ways: Category 1 on-compound verbs Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be" Category 2 ompound verbs Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be" Example:Agreement
# Transitive verbs uses ergative construction: Past participle + verb "to be" agree with object; subject is in oblique case # Intransitive verbs: Past participle+ verb "to be" agree with the subject Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل o ripen, matureVerbs: potential construction
Optative
The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy outhern Dialects ی-ay orth Western Dialects ې orth Eastern Dialects The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy outhern Dialects ی-ay orth Western Dialects ې orth Eastern DialectsPresent potential
Formed by: Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل Example:Past potential
Past potential 1
To indicate: # Event did not take place: مونږ تېر کال جوار کرلی شوه e might have been able to plant corn last year# Event carried out over extended period of time: مونږ ډرامې ليدلی شوې e were able to watch TV-shows Formed by: Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل Example:Past potential 2
To indicate: # Where the event was actually carried out e.g. تۀ هلته په وخت ورسېدلی شوې؟ ou were able to get there on time Formed by: Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدلAuxiliary: "to be"
The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.Present imperfective
Present imperfective tense of "to be":Present perfective form
Present perfective tense of "to be":Past form
Past tense of "to be":Future tense
In Pashto the future tense راتلونکی مهالis the same as the present tense وسنی مهالwith the exception that in the future tense the marker به əis added. In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used. Future tense of "to be":Imperative Form
Also known as Command Form"Wi" – usage
وي '' i' is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.Verbs: causative construction
This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" here do X is the original verb Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/. The causative can either use the present stem or past stem nd sometimes both– depending on the original verb. Example:Verbs: imperative form
This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:Number
The two verbal suffixes are employed: Example: The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.Positive command
Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress) In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.Intensive
The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:Compound verbs
= Transitive
= For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object. Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject= Intransitive
= For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subjectNegative command
Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/. Compare:Prefixed verbs
North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.Verbs: phrasal verbs
These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l
These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و /wə́/.Kawə́l
Here are the forms of Kawə́l as a verbaliser ot a main verb As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect. She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.Kedə́l
Here are the forms of Kedə́l as a verbaliser ot a main verb As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "''to be''".Future Tense
The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker" and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.Future Expression
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.With Present Imperfective Tense
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below. * To describe a future reference that is repeated or ongoing: * Present Imperfective verb base is also used where future marker like "tomorrow", "next week" etc. is used: * To contrast a future action with another future action:Negative Future Expressions
With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.First Conjugattion Class
Simple Verbs
If there is a grammatical subject or object: Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix If there is both a grammatical subject and object: Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object: و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffixa-initial verbs
The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/. Thereby: If there is a grammatical subject or object: Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix ''Verb: اخستل xstә́l' If there is both a grammatical subject and object: Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix ''Verb: استول stawә́l' If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object: وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix ''Verb: اچول čawә́l'Second Conjugation Class
First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed Second: به /bә/ can then be placed Before verb: Or before the object (likely where there is a subject)Third Conjugation Class
With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element. Example: روغېدل oğedә́l"Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense
The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.Adverbs
Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree. These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase. ''Acting alone:'' ''Acting as adipositional phrase:''Adverbs of time
These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items. Common adverbs of time:Adverbs of place
This informs us where something takes place. Common adverbs of time:Demonstrative pronouns
These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns Example sentence in Waziri:Adpositions
Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.Prepositions
List of prepositionsPostpositions
Ambipositions
Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (Phrases
Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.With له.... نه
These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word In some dialects له is replaced by د ExamplesWith د ... په
Examples: Examples: Note: the possessive phrase ə/دcan be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.Adpositions and noun cases
Oblique case
Most common case. The object ounof an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case. Used with: * ته /tə/ 'to' * سره /səra/ ' omitativewith' * the prepositions د /də/ 'of' and په /pə/ 'at', plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two prepositions; * the circumposition له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/. Example: سړی sing preposition دand ښځه sing preposition پهare in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښېAblative case
Used with: * له /lə/ 'from'; and also د /də/ having the same meaning 'from' * تر /tər/ 'from, originating from' * Circumposition containing تر /tər/, له /lə/; except له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/ *په /pə/ the instrumental usage only found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object Example: circumposition تر ... پورې With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of '(motion) away from': په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective:Mixed ablative case and oblique cases
Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning. Example: with سړی in oblique case Example: with سړی in ablative casePassive voice
Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs. The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l ('to become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present). The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل: If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د ...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/. As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head.Adverbial Clauses
Pashto utilises conjunction phrases asParticles
Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".Existential
The word ''شته hta' and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.Modal Particles
Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause". چې can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.Affirmative
که نه
Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/ (''literally:'' "if/or no"). Affirmative Question Example: Affirmative Statement Example:Deontic
دې
The modal دې e; Southern dialects: diexpresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.باید
The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity.پکار دى
"Pəkā́r day" t is neededis also used as deontic clauseEmphatic
خو
The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis. Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.Possibility
ښایي / ښائي
The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې e The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"کېدی شي
Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe usedVocative
The following vocatives have been noted:Wish
کاشکې
The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened. It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish. It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request. Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry:Nuance
In this section the nuances or theراوړل and راوستل
Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".Tangible Objects
Example راوړل: ''Explanation:'' Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass Example راوستل: ''Explanation:'' Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the waterIntangible Objects
For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion. But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.Adjectives
As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning. Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect oun.masc.sing and pluralSlang
Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:Syntax
Pashto has subject-object-verb (SOV) word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb (SV) word order. In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.Phrasal syntax
Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.Noun phrases
Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.Adpositional phrases
The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.Verb phrases
Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.=Light verb constructions
= Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb (N-V). As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot. The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs. Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.=Elements in the verbal group
=The verbal group in general Pashto Certain particles can be inserted between: * The perfective prefix و /wə/́and its verb. * A prefix or pseudo-prefix and its verb. (This includes both the a-initial complex verbs and second conjugation, or prefixed, verbs.) * The complement of a denominal verb and its verbalizer. The particles that interact with verbs in this way are: * The modal clitics به /bə/ and دې /de/ * The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics مې /me/, دې /de/, یې /ye/, and مو /mo/ *The adverbial clitics خو /xo/ and نو /no/ * The negatives نه /ná/ and مه /má/ Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.
Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.
Numbers
Cardinal numbers
Direct case, masculineOrdinal numbers
Direct case, masc., sing. * 1st لومړی lumṛai lso ړومبی* 2nd دويم dwaim lso دوهم* 3rd درېيم drəyam * 4th څلورم tsaloram * 5th پنځم pindzam * 6th شپږم špaẓ̌am * 7th اووم uwam * 8th اتم atam * 9th نهم nəham * 10th لسم lasamNotes
:1. په بارې کښې ə bâre keis also used but this is a word-for-word borrowing from Hindi/Urdu के बारे में/کے بارے میں ē bārē mēⁿ The Hindi word bārē ारे/بارےis itself from Persian در بارهٔ ar bāraye\dar bāreye:2. Pashto has a rich number ofReferences
External links
*Anne Boyle David, "Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects" *Habibullah Tegey & Barbara Robson (1996) Center for Applied Linguistics *Herbert Penzl, ''A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan'' *Georg Morgenstierne, "'AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧtō'"