The Paramara dynasty (
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the
Parmara
Parmar is a Rajput clan found in Northern and Central India, especially in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Kutch, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and North Maharashtra.
See also
* Paramara Dynasty
* Panwar Dynasty
* Pawar
P ...
clan of the
Rajputs
Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...
.
The dynasty was established in either the 9th or 10th century, and its early rulers most probably ruled as vassals of the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing thei ...
. The earliest extant Paramara inscriptions, issued by the 10th-century ruler
Siyaka
Siyaka (IAST: Sīyaka; reigned c. 949-972 CE), also known as Harsha (IAST: Harṣa), was a Paramara king, who ruled in west-central India. He appears to have been the first independent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
Siyaka is the earliest Para ...
, have been found in
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
. Around 972 CE, Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakuta capital
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
, and established the Paramaras as a sovereign power. By the time of his successor
Munja, the Malwa region in present-day
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
had become the core Paramara territory, with
Dhara (now Dhar) as their capital. The dynasty reached its zenith under Munja's nephew
Bhoja
Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all h ...
, whose kingdom extended from
Chittor
Chittorgarh (also Chittor or Chittaurgarh) is a major city in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of the Banas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgarh District. It was a major stronghold ...
in the north to
Konkan
The Konkan ( kok, कोंकण) or Kokan () is a stretch of land by the western coast of India, running from Damaon in the north to Karwar in the south; with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Deccan plateau in the east. The hinterland ...
in the south, and from the
Sabarmati River in the west to
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
in the east.
The Paramara power rose and declined several times as a result of their struggles with the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
s of Gujarat, the
Chalukyas of Kalyani
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the ...
, the
Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri ( IAST: ), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kal ...
,
Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
and other neighbouring kingdoms. The later Paramara rulers moved their capital to
Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was sacked multiple times by their enemies.
Mahalakadeva
Mahālakadeva (died 1305 CE), also known as Mahlak Deo or Mahlak Deva, was a king of the Paramara dynasty in central India. The last known ruler of the dynasty, he was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of Delhi.
Political st ...
, the last known Paramara king, was
defeated and killed by the forces of
Alauddin Khalji
Alaud-Dīn Khaljī, also called Alauddin Khilji or Alauddin Ghilji (), born Ali Gurshasp, was an emperor of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over lar ...
of
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
in 1305 CE, although epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramara rule continued for a few years after his death.
Malwa enjoyed a great level of political and cultural prestige under the Paramaras. The Paramaras were well known for their patronage to
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
poets and scholars, and Bhoja was himself a renowned scholar. Most of the Paramara kings were
Shaivite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
s and commissioned several Shiva temples, although they also patronized
Jain
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
scholars.
Origin
Ancestry
The
Harsola copper plates
The Harsola copper plates are a set of two 949 CE Indian inscriptions that record the grants of two villages to a Nagar Brahmin father-son duo. The grants were issued by the Paramara king Siyaka II. The copper plates were discovered in Hars ...
(949 CE) issued by the Paramara king
Siyaka II
Siyaka (IAST: Sīyaka; reigned c. 949-972 CE), also known as Harsha (IAST: Harṣa), was a Paramara king, who ruled in west-central India. He appears to have been the first independent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
Siyaka is the earliest Para ...
mentions a king called Akalavarsha, followed by the expression ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family"), and then followed by the name "Vappairaja" (identified with the Paramara king Vakpati I). Based on the identification of "Akalavarsha" (which was a
Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
title) with the Rashtrakuta king
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
, historian as D.C. Ganguly theorized that the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas. Ganguly tried to find support for his theory in ''
Ain-i-Akbari'', whose variation of the
Agnikula
In Indian culture, the Agnivanshi are people who claim descent from Agni, the Vedic god of fire. The Agnivanshi lineage (Agnivansha or Agnikula) is one of the three lineages into which the Rajput clans, the others being the Suryavanshi (descended ...
myth (see below) states that a predecessor of the Paramaras came to Malwa from
Deccan
The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
. According to ''Ain-i-Akbari'', Dhanji - a man born from a fire sacrifice - came from Deccan to establish a kingdom in Malwa; when his descendant Putraj died heirless, the nobles established Aditya Ponwar - the ancestor of the Paramaras - as the new king. Ganguly also noted Siyaka's successor
Munja (Vakpati II) assumed titles such as
Amoghavarsha, Sri-vallabha and
Prithvi-vallabha
Prithvi-vallabha (IAST: ), or , was a title adopted by several kings that ruled in present-day India, including the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Rashtrakutas and their successors.
Chalukyas of Vatapi
All the sovereign rulers of the Chalukyas of Vat ...
: these are distinctively Rashtrakuta titles.
However, there is a gap before the words ''tasmin kule'' ("in that family") in the Harsola inscription, and therefore, Ganguly's suggestion is a pure guess in absence of any concrete evidence. Moreover, even if the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' legend is historically accurate, Aditya Ponwar was not a descendant of Dhanji: he was most probably a local magnate rather than a native of Deccan. Critics of Ganguly's theory also argue that the Rashtrakuta titles in these inscriptions refer to Paramara rulers, who had assumed these titles to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the Rashtrakutas in the Malwa region. The Rashtrakutas had similarly adopted the titles such as ''
Prithvi-vallabha
Prithvi-vallabha (IAST: ), or , was a title adopted by several kings that ruled in present-day India, including the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Rashtrakutas and their successors.
Chalukyas of Vatapi
All the sovereign rulers of the Chalukyas of Vat ...
'', which had been used by the preceding
Chalukya
The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty ...
rulers. Historian
Dasharatha Sharma
Dasharatha Sharma (1903–1976) was an Indologist with particular interest in the history of the Rajasthan region of India. Born in the Rajasthani city of Churu, he studied in the city of Bikaner and at the University of Delhi. He had degrees ...
points out that the Paramaras claimed the mythical
Agnikula
In Indian culture, the Agnivanshi are people who claim descent from Agni, the Vedic god of fire. The Agnivanshi lineage (Agnivansha or Agnikula) is one of the three lineages into which the Rajput clans, the others being the Suryavanshi (descended ...
origin by the 10th century: had they really been descendants of the Rashtrakutas, they would not have forgotten their prestigious royal origin within a generation.
The later Paramara kings claimed to be members of the
Agnikula
In Indian culture, the Agnivanshi are people who claim descent from Agni, the Vedic god of fire. The Agnivanshi lineage (Agnivansha or Agnikula) is one of the three lineages into which the Rajput clans, the others being the Suryavanshi (descended ...
or Agnivansha ("fire clan"). The Agnikula myth of origin, which appears in several of their inscriptions and literary works, goes like this: The sage
Vishvamitra forcibly took a
wish-granting cow from another sage
Vashistha
Vasishtha ( sa, वसिष्ठ, IAST: ') is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis or sages, and one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis). Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the ''Rigveda''. Vashishtha ...
on the Arbuda mountain (
Mount Abu
Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above s ...
). Vashistha then conjured a hero from a sacrificial fire pit (''agni-kunda''), who defeated
Vishvamitra's enemies and brought back the cow. Vashistha then gave the hero the title Paramara ("enemy killer"). The earliest known source to mention this story is the ''
Nava-sahasanka-charita
:Not to be confused with ''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' by Shriharsha
''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' (IAST: ''Nava-sāhasānka-carita'', "the biography of the New Sahasanka") is a Sanskrit-language epic poem written by the Paramara court poet Padmagupta, ...
'' of Padmagupta Parimala, who was a court-poet of the Paramara king
Sindhuraja
Sindhuraja (IAST: Sindhurāja) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled the Malwa region in the late 10th century. He was the younger brother of Munja, and the father of Bhoja.
Background
No inscriptions issued by Sindhuraja ...
(c. 997–1010). The legend is not mentioned in earlier Paramara-era inscriptions or literary works. By this time, all the neighbouring dynasties claimed divine or heroic origin, which might have motivated the Paramaras to invent a legend of their own.
A legend mentioned in a recension of ''
Prithviraj Raso'' extended their Agnikula legend to describe other dynasties as fire-born Rajputs. The earliest extant copies of ''Prithviraj Raso'' do not contain this legend; this version might have been invented by the 16th-century poets who wanted to foster Rajput unity against the
Mughal emperor
Akbar
Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...
. Some
colonial-era historians interpreted this mythical account to suggest a foreign origin for the Paramaras. According to this theory, the ancestors of the Paramaras and other Agnivanshi Rajputs came to India after the decline of the
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gol ...
around the 5th century CE. They were admitted in the
Hindu caste system
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mug ...
after performing a fire ritual. However, this theory is weakened by the fact that the legend is not mentioned in the earliest of the Paramara records, and even the earliest Paramara-era account does not mention the other dynasties as Agnivanshi.
Some historians, such as Dasharatha Sharma and Pratipal Bhatia, have argued that the Paramaras were originally
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s from the Vashistha
gotra. This theory is based on the fact that
Halayudha
Halayudha (Sanskrit: हलायुध) was a 10th-century Indian mathematician who wrote the ',Maurice Winternitz, ''History of Indian Literature'', Vol. III a commentary on Pingala's ''Chandaḥśāstra''. The latter contains a clear descri ...
, who was patronized by Munja, describes the king as "Brahma-Kshtra" in ''Pingala-Sutra-Vritti''. According to Bhatia this expression means that Munja came from a family of
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s who became
Kshatriya
Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
s. In addition, the Patanarayana temple inscription states that the Paramaras were of Vashistha
gotra, which is a gotra among Brahmins claiming descent from the sage Vashistha. However, historian Arvind K. Singh points out that several other sources point to a
Kshatriya
Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
ancestry of the dynasty. For example, the 1211 Piplianagar inscription states that the ancestors of the Paramaras were "crest-jewel of the Kshatriyas", and the ''Prabha-vakara-charita'' mentions that Vakpati was born in the dynasty of a Kshatriya. According to Singh, the expression "Brahma-Kshatriya" refers to a learned Kshatriya.
D. C. Sircar
Dineshchandra Sircar (1907–1985), also known as D. C. Sircar or D. C. Sarkar, was an epigraphist, historian, numismatist and folklorist, known particularly in India and Bangladesh for his work deciphering inscriptions. He was the Chief Ep ...
theorized that the dynasty descended from the
Malavas
The Malavas (Brahmi script: 𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸𑀭𑀯 ''Mmālava'') or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Mallian people (Malloi) who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander the Great, A ...
. However, there is no evidence of the early Paramara rulers being called Malava; the Paramaras began to be called Malavas only after they began ruling the Malwa region.
Chaulukya-Paramara coin circa AD 950-1050.jpg , A Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
-Paramara coin, c. 950-1050 CE. Stylized rendition of Chavda dynasty
The Chavda (IAST:Chávaḍá), also spelled Chawda or Chavada was a dynasty which ruled the region of modern-day Gujarat in India, from c. 690 to 942. Variants of the name for the dynasty include Chapotkatas, Chahuda and Chávoṭakas.
During ...
coins: Indo-Sassanian
Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called Kushanshahs, KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''or Koshano Shao'' in Bactrian, or Indo-Sasanians) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians who established their rule in ...
style bust right; pellets and ornaments around / Stylised fire altar; pellets around.
Paramaras of Malwa King Naravarman Circa 1094-1133.jpg , Coin of the Paramara king Naravarman
Naravarman (reigned c. 1094-1133 CE), also known as Naravarma-deva, was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India. The Paramara power greatly declined during his reign, as a result of multiple milit ...
, c. 1094–1133. Goddess Lakshmi
Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with ''Maya'' ("Illusion"). Alo ...
seated facing / Devanagari legend.
Paramaras of Vidarbha King Jagaddeva 12th-13th centuries.jpg , Coin of the Paramara prince Jagadeva
Jagadeva, also known as Jagaddeva or Jagdev Parmar, was an 11th-12th century prince from the Paramara dynasty of central India. He is known from an inscription discovered at Jainad and some folk legends. His political status is uncertain, althou ...
, 12th-13th centuries CE.
Original homeland
Based on the Agnikula legend, some scholars such as
C. V. Vaidya
Chintaman Vinayak Vaidya (18 October 1861– 20 April 1938) was a Marathi-language historian and writer from Maharashtra, India. He was Chief Justice of Gwalior State for a period. He was born in a Chitpavan Brahmin family.
In 1908, Vaidya chaire ...
and
V. A. Smith speculated that Mount Abu was the original home of the Paramaras. Based on the Harsola copper plates and ''Ain-i-Akbari'', D. C. Ganguly believed they came from the Deccan region.
The earliest of the Paramara inscriptions (that of Siyaka II) have all been discovered in Gujarat, and concern land grants in that region. Based on this, D. B. Diskalkar and H. V. Trivedi theorized that the Paramaras were associated with Gujarat during their early days. Another possibility is that the early Paramara rulers temporarily left their capital city of Dhara in Malwa for Gujarat because of a Gurjara-Pratihara invasion. This theory is based on the combined analysis of two sources: the ''Nava-sahasanka-charita'', which states that the Paramara king Vairisimha cleared the Dhara city in Malwa of enemies; and the 945-946 CE Pratapgah inscription of the Gurjara-Prathiara king Mahendrapala, which states that he recaptured Malwa.
Early rulers
Whether or not the Paramaras were descended from the Rashtrakutas, they were most probably subordinates of the Rashtrakutas in the 9th century. Historical evidence suggests that between 808 and 812 CE, the Rashtrakutas expelled the
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of th ...
s from the
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
region. The Rashtrakuta king
Govinda III
Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
placed Malwa under the protection of Karka-raja, the Rashtrakuta chief of
Lata
Lata (Hindi: लता) is a Hindu/Sanskrit Indian female given name, which means "creeper" and "vine". Lata may refer to:
Notable people named Lata
*Lata Bhatt (born 1954), Indian singer.
* Lata (born 1975), Musician.
*Lata Mangeshkar (1929–2 ...
(a region bordering Malwa, in present-day Gujarat). The 871 Sanjan copper-plate inscription of Govinda's son
Amoghavarsha I
Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
states that his father had appointed a vassal as the governor of Malwa. Since the Paramaras became the rulers of the Malwa region around this time, epigraphist H. V. Trivedi theorizes that this vassal was the Paramara king Upendra, although there is no definitive proof of this. The start of the Paramara rule in Malwa cannot be dated with certainty, but they certainly did not rule the Malwa before the 9th century CE.
Siyaka
Siyaka (IAST: Sīyaka; reigned c. 949-972 CE), also known as Harsha (IAST: Harṣa), was a Paramara king, who ruled in west-central India. He appears to have been the first independent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
Siyaka is the earliest Para ...
is the earliest known Paramara king attested by his own inscriptions. His
Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE) is the earliest available Paramara inscription: it suggests that he was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas. The list of his predecessors varies between accounts:
Paramara is the dynasty's mythical progenitor, according to the
Agnikula
In Indian culture, the Agnivanshi are people who claim descent from Agni, the Vedic god of fire. The Agnivanshi lineage (Agnivansha or Agnikula) is one of the three lineages into which the Rajput clans, the others being the Suryavanshi (descended ...
legend. Whether the other early kings mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are historical or fictional is a topic of debate among historians.
According to
C. V. Vaidya
Chintaman Vinayak Vaidya (18 October 1861– 20 April 1938) was a Marathi-language historian and writer from Maharashtra, India. He was Chief Justice of Gwalior State for a period. He was born in a Chitpavan Brahmin family.
In 1908, Vaidya chaire ...
and
K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, the Paramara dynasty was founded only in the 10th century CE. Vaidya believes that the kings such as Vairisimha I and Siyaka I are imaginary, duplicated from the names of later historical kings in order to push back the dynasty's age. The 1274 CE Mandhata copper-plate inscription of
Jayavarman II
Jayavarman II ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី២; c. 770 – 850) (reigned c. 802–850) was a Khmer prince who founded and became the ruler of the Khmer Empire (Cambodia) after unifying the Khmer civilization. The Khmer Empire was the ...
similarly names eight successors of Paramara as Kamandaludhara, Dhumraja, Devasimhapala, Kanakasimha, Shriharsha,
Jagaddeva, Sthirakaya and Voshari: these do not appear to be historical figures. HV Trivedi states that there is a possibility that Vairisimha I and Siyaka I of the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are same as Vairisimha II and Siyaka II; the names might have been repeated by mistake. Alternatively, he theorizes that these names have been omitted in other inscriptions because these rulers were not independent sovereigns.
Several other historians believe that the early Paramara rulers mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' are not fictional, and the Paramaras started ruling Malwa in the 9th century (as Rashtrakuta vassals). K. N. Seth argues that even some of the later Paramara inscriptions mention only 3-4 predecessors of the king who issued the inscription. Therefore, the absence of certain names from the genealogy provided in the early inscriptions does not mean that these were imaginary rulers. According to him, the mention of Upendra in ''Nava-Sahasanka-Charitra'' (composed by the court poet of the later king Sindhuraja) proves that Upendra is not a fictional king. Historians such as
Georg Bühler
Professor Johann Georg Bühler (July 19, 1837 – April 8, 1898) was a scholar of ancient Indian languages and law.
Early life and education
Bühler was born to Rev. Johann G. Bühler in Borstel, Hanover, attended grammar school in Hanover, whe ...
and
James Burgess identify Upendra and Krishnaraja as one person, because these are synonyms (Upendra being another
name of Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit: , ' in IAST, pronounced (Classical Sanskrit) and in ''Vedic Sanskrit'' is a Hindu deity worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. In Hinduism, Krishna is recognized as the comple ...
). However, an inscription of Siyaka's successor
Munja names the preceding kings as Krishnaraja, Vairisimha, and Siyaka. Based on this, Seth however identifies Krishnaraja with Vappairaja or Vakpati I mentioned in the Harsola plates (Vappairaja appears to be the Prakrit form of Vakpati-raja). In his support, Seth points out that Vairisimha has been called ''Krishna-padanudhyata'' in the inscription of Munja i.e. Vakpati II. He theorizes that Vakpati II used the name "Krishnaraja" instead of Vakpati I to identify his ancestor, in order to avoid confusion with his own name.
The imperial Paramaras
The first independent sovereign of the Paramara dynasty was
Siyaka
Siyaka (IAST: Sīyaka; reigned c. 949-972 CE), also known as Harsha (IAST: Harṣa), was a Paramara king, who ruled in west-central India. He appears to have been the first independent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
Siyaka is the earliest Para ...
(sometimes called Siyaka II to distinguish him from the earlier Siyaka mentioned in the ''Udaipur Prashasti''). The Harsola copper plates (949 CE) suggest that Siyaka was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruler
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
in his early days. However, the same inscription also mentions the high-sounding ''
Maharajadhiraj
Mahārāja (; also spelled Maharajah, Maharaj) is a Sanskrit title for a "great ruler", "great king" or " high king".
A few ruled states informally called empires, including ruler raja Sri Gupta, founder of the ancient Indian Gupta Empire, a ...
apati'' as one of Siyaka's titles. Based on this, K. N. Seth believes that Siyaka's acceptance of the Rashtrakuta lordship was nominal.
As a Rashtrakuta feudatory, Siyaka participated in their campaigns against the
Pratiharas
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
. He also defeated some
Huna chiefs ruling to the north of Malwa. He might have suffered setbacks against the
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
king
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was k ...
. After the death of
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
, Siyaka defeated his successor
Khottiga
Khottiga or Amoghavarsha IV (ruled 967–972 CE), who bore the title ''Nityavarsha'', was a ruler of the Rashtrakuta Empire. During this period the Rashtrakutas started to decline. The Paramara King Siyaka II plundered Manyakheta and Khottiga di ...
in a battle fought on the banks of the
Narmada River. He then pursued Khottiga's retreating army to the Rashtrakuta capital
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
, and sacked that city in 972 CE. His victory ultimately led to the decline of the Rashtrakutas, and the establishment of the Paramaras as an independent sovereign power in Malwa.
Siyaka's successor Munja achieved military successes against the
Chahamanas of Shakambari
The Chahamanas of Shakambhari (IAST: Cāhamāna), colloquially known as the Chauhans of Sambhar or Chauhans of Ajmer, were an Indian dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Rajasthan and neighbouring areas in India, between the 6th and 12th ...
, the
Chahamanas of Naddula
The Chahamanas of Naddula, also known as the Chauhans of Nadol, were an Indian dynasty. They ruled the Marwar area around their capital Naddula (present-day Nadol in Rajasthan) between 10th and 12th centuries. They belonged to the Chahamana (C ...
, the
Guhilas of Mewar
The Guhilas of Medapata colloquially known as Guhilas of Mewar were a Rajput dynasty that ruled the Medapata (modern Mewar) region in present-day Rajasthan state of India. The Guhila kings initially ruled as Gurjara-Pratihara feudatories be ...
, the
Hunas
Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: ''Hūṇā'') was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Huna Kin ...
, the
Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri ( IAST: ), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kal ...
, and the ruler of
Gurjara region (possibly a
Gujarat Chaulukya or
Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
ruler). He also achieved some early successes against the
Western Chalukya
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in th ...
king
Tailapa II
Tailapa II (r. c. 973-997), also known as Taila II and by his title ''Ahavamalla'', was the founder of the Western Chalukya dynasty in southern India. Tailapa claimed descent from the earlier Chalukyas of Vatapi, and initially ruled as a Rashtr ...
, but was ultimately defeated and killed by Tailapa some time between 994 CE and 998 CE.
As a result of this defeat, the Paramaras lost their southern territories (possibly the ones beyond the
Narmada river) to the Chalukyas. Munja was reputed as a patron of scholars, and his rule attracted scholars from different parts of India to Malwa. He was also a poet himself, although only a few stanzas composed by him now survive.
Munja's brother
Sindhuraja
Sindhuraja (IAST: Sindhurāja) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled the Malwa region in the late 10th century. He was the younger brother of Munja, and the father of Bhoja.
Background
No inscriptions issued by Sindhuraja ...
(ruled c. 990s CE) defeated the Western Chalukya king
Satyashraya
Satyashraya (; ), also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was a king of the Western Chalukya Empire. During a time of consolidation of the empire in the early 11th century, Satyashraya was involved in several battles with the Chola dynasty of Th ...
, and recovered the territories lost to Tailapa II. He also achieved military successes against a
Huna chief, the
Somavanshi
The Lunar dynasty (IAST: Candravaṃśa) is a legendary principal house of the Kshatriyas varna in Hinduism, varna, or warrior–ruling caste mentioned in the ancient Indian texts. This legendary dynasty was said to be descended from moon-rel ...
of
south Kosala
Dakshina Kosala (IAST: Dakṣiṇa Kosala, "southern Kosala") is a historical region of central India. It was located in what is now Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh along with some parts of Western Odisha. At its greatest extent, it may have al ...
, the
Shilaharas of
Konkana, and the ruler of
Lata
Lata (Hindi: लता) is a Hindu/Sanskrit Indian female given name, which means "creeper" and "vine". Lata may refer to:
Notable people named Lata
*Lata Bhatt (born 1954), Indian singer.
* Lata (born 1975), Musician.
*Lata Mangeshkar (1929–2 ...
(southern Gujarat). His court poet Padmagupta wrote his biography ''Nava-Sahasanka-Charita'', which credits him with several other victories, although these appear to be poetic exaggerations.
Sindhuraja's son
Bhoja
Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all h ...
is the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty. He made several attempts to expand the Paramara kingdom varying results. Around 1018 CE, he defeated the
Chalukyas of Lata
The Chalukyas of Lata were an Indian dynasty, which ruled the Lata region of present-day Gujarat during 10th and 11th centuries. They ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas in their early years, and were ultimately defeated by the Chauluk ...
in present-day Gujarat. Between 1018 CE and 1020 CE, he gained control of the northern
Konkan
The Konkan ( kok, कोंकण) or Kokan () is a stretch of land by the western coast of India, running from Damaon in the north to Karwar in the south; with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Deccan plateau in the east. The hinterland ...
, whose Shilahara rulers probably served as his feudatories for a brief period. Bhoja also formed an alliance against the
Kalyani Chalukya
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the ...
king
Jayasimha II, with
Rajendra Chola
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tami ...
and
Gangeya-deva Kalachuri. The extent of Bhoja's success in this campaign is not certain, as both Chalukya and Paramara
panegyrics claimed victory. During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor
Someshvara I
Someshvara I (; ) was a king of the Western Chalukyas. Also known as "Ahavamalla" or "Trilokamalla", Someshvara succeeded his father Jayasimha II to the throne.
His several military successes in Central India made him a formidable ruler of ...
invaded Malwa, and sacked his capital
Dhara. Bhoja re-established his control over Malwa soon after the departure of the Chalukya army, but the defeat pushed back the southern boundary of his kingdom from
Godavari
The Godavari ( IAST: ''Godāvarī'' od̪aːʋəɾiː is India's second longest river after the Ganga river and drains into the third largest basin in India, covering about 10% of India's total geographical area. Its source is in Trimbakesh ...
to
Narmada.
Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the
Chandela
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
king
Vidyadhara
Vidyadhara(s) (Sanskrit , literally "wisdom-holders") are a group of supernatural beings in Indian religions who possess magical powers. In Hinduism, they also attend Shiva, who lives in the Himalayas. They are considered ''Upadeva''s, or demi ...
. However, Bhoja was able to extend his influence among the Chandela feudatories, the
Kachchhapaghatas of Dubkund. Bhoja also launched a campaign against the Kachchhapaghatas of
Gwalior
Gwalior() is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; it lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located south of Delhi, the capital city of India, from Agra and from Bhopal, the s ...
, possibly with the ultimate goal of capturing
Kannauj
Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...
, but his attacks were repulsed by their ruler Kirtiraja. Bhoja also defeated the
Chahamanas of Shakambhari
The Chahamanas of Shakambhari (IAST: Cāhamāna), colloquially known as the Chauhans of Sambhar or Chauhans of Ajmer, were an Indian dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Rajasthan and neighbouring areas in India, between the 6th and 12th ...
, killing their ruler
Viryarama. However, he was forced to retreat by the
Chahamanas of Naddula
The Chahamanas of Naddula, also known as the Chauhans of Nadol, were an Indian dynasty. They ruled the Marwar area around their capital Naddula (present-day Nadol in Rajasthan) between 10th and 12th centuries. They belonged to the Chahamana (C ...
. According to medieval Muslim historians, after sacking
Somnath,
Mahmud of Ghazni
Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
changed his route to avoid confrontation with a Hindu king named Param Dev. Modern historians identify Param Dev as Bhoja: the name may be a corruption of Paramara-Deva or of Bhoja's title ''Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka''. Bhoja may have also contributed troops to support the
Kabul Shahi Kabul Shahi is a term used to denote two former non-Muslim dynasties in Kabul:
*Turk Shahis (665–850 CE)
*Hindu Shahi
The Hindu Shahis (also known as Odi Shahis, Uḍi Śāhis, or Brahman Shahis, 822–1026 CE) were a dynasty that held sway ...
ruler
Anandapala
The Hindu Shahis (also known as Odi Shahis, Uḍi Śāhis, or Brahman Shahis, 822–1026 CE) were a dynasty that held sway over the Kabul Valley, Gandhara and western Punjab during the early medieval period in the Indian subcontinent. Details r ...
's fight against the
Ghaznavids
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( fa, غزنویان ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest ...
. He may have also been a part of the Hindu alliance that expelled Mahmud's governors from
Hansi,
Thanesar
Thanesar city or old Kurukshetra city is a historic town and an important Hindu pilgrimage centre in Kurukshetra district of the state of Haryana in northern India. It is located in Kurukshetra district, approximately 160 km northwest of D ...
and other areas around 1043 CE. During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king
Bhima I
Bhima I (r. c. 1022–1064 CE) was a Chaulukya king who ruled parts of present-day Gujarat, India. The early years of his reign saw an invasion from the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud, who sacked the Somnath temple. Bhima left his capital and took s ...
and the Kalachuri king
Karna
Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-raja, and Radheya, is one of the main protagonists of the Hindu epic '' Mahābhārata''. He is the son of the sun god Surya and princess Kunti (mother of the ...
attacked his kingdom. According to the 14th-century author Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom.
At its zenith, Bhoja's kingdom extended from
Chittor
Chittorgarh (also Chittor or Chittaurgarh) is a major city in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of the Banas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgarh District. It was a major stronghold ...
in the north to upper
Konkan
The Konkan ( kok, कोंकण) or Kokan () is a stretch of land by the western coast of India, running from Damaon in the north to Karwar in the south; with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Deccan plateau in the east. The hinterland ...
in the south, and from the
Sabarmati River in the west to
Vidisha
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
in the east. He was recognized as a capable military leader, but his territorial conquests were short-lived. His major claim to fame was his reputation as a scholar-king, who patronized arts, literature and sciences. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship. Bhoja was himself a polymath, whose writings cover a wide variety of topics include grammar, poetry, architecture, yoga, and chemistry. Bhoja established the
Bhoj Shala
The Bhojshala (IAST: Bhojaśālā, sometimes Bhoj Shala, meaning 'Hall of Bhoja') is an historic building located in Dhar, Madhya Pradesh, India. The name is derived from the celebrated king Bhoja of the Paramāra dynasty of central India, a ...
which was a centre for
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
studies and a temple of
Sarasvati
Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati.
The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a go ...
in present-day
Dhar
Dhar is a city located in Dhar district of the Malwa region in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The city is the administrative headquarters of the Dhar district. Before Indian independence from Great Britain, it was the capital of the Dhar ...
. He is said to have founded the city of
Bhojpur, a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the
Bhojeshwar Temple
The Bhojeshwar Temple (IAST: Bhojeśvara) is an incomplete Hindu temple in Bhojpur village of Madhya Pradesh, India. Dedicated to Shiva, it houses a high lingam in its sanctum.
The temple's construction is believed to have started in the 11th c ...
there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him. Because of his patronage to literary figures, several legends written after his death featured him as a righteous scholar-king. In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the fabled
Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya (IAST: ') was a legendary king who has been featured in hundreds of traditional stories including those in ''Baital Pachisi'' and '' Singhasan Battisi''. Many describe him as ruler with his capital at Ujjain (Pataliputra or Prati ...
.
Decline
Bhoja's successor
Jayasimha I, who was probably his son, faced the joint
Kalachuri-
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
invasion immediately after Bhoja's death.
Bilhana
Kaviraj, Kavi Bilhana was an 11th-century Kashmiri Pandits, Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the ''Caurapañcāśikā''.
According to legend, Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, ...
's writings suggest that he sought help from the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Jayasimha's successor and Bhoja's brother
Udayaditya
Udayaditya (reigned c. 1070–1093) was a Paramara ruler of Malwa region of central India, who succeeded Jayasimha I. He was succeeded by his son, either Lakshmadeva or Naravarman.
Ascension
Udayaditya was a brother of Bhoja, the most re ...
was defeated by Chamundaraja, his vassal at
Vagada
Vagad (also known as Vagar, Hindi: वागड) is a region in southeastern Rajasthan state of western India. Its boundaries are roughly defined by those of the districts of Dungarpur and Banswara. Major cities of the region are Dungarpur and ...
. He repulsed an invasion by the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
ruler
Karna
Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-raja, and Radheya, is one of the main protagonists of the Hindu epic '' Mahābhārata''. He is the son of the sun god Surya and princess Kunti (mother of the ...
, with help from his allies. Udayaditya's eldest son
Lakshmadeva
Lakshmadeva ( IAST: Lakṣma-deva) was a member of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa region in central India. According to one theory, he ascended the Paramara throne after his father Udayaditya, and reigned during the 1080s CE. According to another ...
has been credited with extensive military conquests in the ''
Nagpur
Nagpur (pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, aːɡpuːɾ is the third largest city and the winter capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the 13th largest city in India by population and according to an Oxford's Economics report, Nag ...
Prashasti'' inscription of 1104-05 CE. However, these appear to be poetic exaggerations. At best, he might have defeated the
Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri ( IAST: ), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kal ...
. Udayaditya's younger son
Naravarman
Naravarman (reigned c. 1094-1133 CE), also known as Naravarma-deva, was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India. The Paramara power greatly declined during his reign, as a result of multiple milit ...
faced several defeats, losing to the
Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.
...
and the Chaulukya king
Jayasimha Siddharaja
Jayasiṃha ( ), who assumed the title Siddharāja (), was an Indian king who ruled western parts of India. He was a member of the Chaulukya (also called Solanki) dynasty.
Jayasimha's capital was located at Anahilapataka (modern Patan) in pres ...
. By the end of his reign, one Vijayapala had carved out an independent kingdom to the north-east of Ujjain.
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was k ...
lost control of the Paramara capital
Dhara to Jayasimha Siddharaja. His successor
Jayavarman I
Jayavarman I ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី១) is considered to be the last ruler of the united Chenla, the predecessor polity of the Khmer Empire.
He ruled from approximately 657 until around 681. Over the course of his reign, and ...
regained control of Dhara, but soon lost it to an usurper named Ballala. The Chaulukya king
Kumarapala defeated Ballala around 1150 CE, supported by his feudatories the
Naddula Chahamana ruler
Alhana and the
Abu
Abu or ABU may refer to:
Places
* Abu (volcano), a volcano on the island of Honshū in Japan
* Abu, Yamaguchi, a town in Japan
* Ahmadu Bello University, a university located in Zaria, Nigeria
* Atlantic Baptist University, a Christian university ...
Paramara chief Yashodhavala. Malwa then became a province of the Chaulukyas. A minor branch of the Paramaras, who styled themselves as ''Mahakumara''s, ruled the area around
Bhopal
Bhopal (; ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of both Bhopal district and Bhopal division. It is known as the ''City of Lakes'' due to its various natural and artificial lakes. It i ...
during this time. Nearly two decades later, Jayavarman's son
Vindhyavarman
Vindhyavarman (reigned c. 1175-1194 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India. He defeated the Chaulukyas, who had annexed the Paramara territory to their own kingdom in the preceding years.
...
defeated the Chaulukya king Mularaja II, and re-established the Paramara sovereignty in Malwa. During his reign, Malwa faced repeated invasions from the
Hoysala
The Hoysala Empire was a Kannada people, Kannadiga power originating from the Indian subcontinent that ruled most of what is now Karnataka, India, Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially loca ...
s and the
Yadavas of Devagiri
The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...
. He was also defeated by the Chaulukya general Kumara. Despite these setbacks, he was able to restore the Paramara power in Malwa before his death.
Vindhyavarman's son
Subhatavarman
Subhatavarman (reigned c. 1194–1209 CE), also known as Sohada, was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India.
Early life
Subhatavarman succeeded his father Vindhyavarman as the Paramara king. H ...
invaded Gujarat, and plundered the Chaulukya territories. But he was ultimately forced to retreat by the Chaulukya feudatory Lavana-Prasada. His son
Arjunavarman I also invaded Gujarat, and defeated Jayanta-simha (or Jaya-simha), who had usurped the Chaulukya throne for a brief period. He was defeated by
Yadava
The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Sat ...
general Kholeshvara in
Lata
Lata (Hindi: लता) is a Hindu/Sanskrit Indian female given name, which means "creeper" and "vine". Lata may refer to:
Notable people named Lata
*Lata Bhatt (born 1954), Indian singer.
* Lata (born 1975), Musician.
*Lata Mangeshkar (1929–2 ...
.
Arjunavarman was succeeded by
Devapala, who was the son of Harishchandra, a ''Mahakumara'' (chief of a Paramara branch). He continued to face struggles against the Chaulukyas and the Yadavas. The
Sultan of Delhi
The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. It includes those said to have ruled a portion of the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka.
The Mahajanapada, earliest Indian rulers are known from epigraphica ...
Iltutmish
Shams ud-Din Iltutmish ( fa, شمس الدین ایلتتمش; died 30 April 1236, ) was the third of the Mamluk dynasty (Delhi), Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid Empire, Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sove ...
captured
Bhilsa
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
during 1233-34 CE, but Devapala defeated the Sultanate's governor and regained control of Bhilsa. According to the ''
Hammira Mahakavya
''Hammira Mahakavya'' (IAST: ''Hammīra-Mahākāvya'') is a 15th-century Indian Sanskrit epic poem written by the Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri. It is a legendary biography of the 13th century Chahamana king Hammira. While not entirely accurate f ...
'', he was killed by Vagabhata of
Ranthambhor, who suspected him of plotting his murder in connivance with the Delhi Sultan.
During the reign of Devapala's son
Jaitugideva
Jaitugi-deva (reigned c. 1239-1255 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India.
Jaitugi succeeded his father Devapala as the Paramara king. He assumed the title ''Bala-Narayana''. No inscrip ...
, the power of the Paramaras greatly declined because of invasions from the Yadava king Krishna, the Delhi Sultan
Balban
Ghiyas ud din Balban (1216–1287, reigned: 1266–1287) ( ur, ); (Hindi: ग़ियास उद-दीन बलबन); (IAST: ''Ghiyās ud-Dīn Balban'') was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.
Ghiyas ud Din was the ''rege ...
, and the
Vaghela prince Visala-deva. Devapala's younger son
Jayavarman II
Jayavarman II ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី២; c. 770 – 850) (reigned c. 802–850) was a Khmer prince who founded and became the ruler of the Khmer Empire (Cambodia) after unifying the Khmer civilization. The Khmer Empire was the ...
also faced attacks from these three powers. Either Jaitugi or Jayavarman II moved the Paramara capital from Dhara to the hilly Mandapa-Durga (present-day
Mandu), which offered a better defensive position.
Arjunavarman II
Arjunavarman II, also known as Arjuna, was a king of the Paramara dynasty in central India. He ruled in the Malwa region, in second half of the 13th century CE, during 1270s and 1280s.
Arjuna II succeeded Jayavarman II (alias Jayasimha), and pro ...
, the successor of Jayavarman II, proved to be a weak ruler. He faced rebellion from his minister. In the 1270s, the Yadava ruler
Ramachandra
Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular ''avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being ...
invaded Malwa, and in the 1280s, the
Ranthambhor Chahamana ruler
Hammira also raided Malwa. Arjuna's successor
Bhoja II also faced an invasion from Hammira. Bhoja II was either a titular ruler controlled by his minister, or his minister had usurped a part of the Paramara kingdom.
Mahalakadeva
Mahālakadeva (died 1305 CE), also known as Mahlak Deo or Mahlak Deva, was a king of the Paramara dynasty in central India. The last known ruler of the dynasty, he was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of Delhi.
Political st ...
, the last known Paramara king, was defeated and killed by the army of
Alauddin Khalji
Alaud-Dīn Khaljī, also called Alauddin Khilji or Alauddin Ghilji (), born Ali Gurshasp, was an emperor of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over lar ...
in 1305 CE.
List of rulers
Find spot
Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...
s of the inscriptions from the reigns of Paramara monarchs of Malwa" width="350" height="350" zoom="5" longitude="76.15" latitude="22.25">
According to historical 'Kailash Chand Jain', "Knowledge of the early Paramara rulers from Upendra to Vairisimha is scanty; there are no records, and they are known only from later sources."
The Paramara rulers mentioned in the various inscriptions and literary sources include:
After death of
indicates that the Paramara dynasty survived until 1310, at least in the north-eastern part of Malwa. A later inscription shows that the area had been captured by the
by 1338.
Besides the Paramara sovereigns of Malwa, several branches of the dynasties ruled as feudatories at various places. These include:
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** Branched off from the Paramaras of Chandravati
** Like the Paramaras of Chandravati, they were connected to the Chaulukyas, and were subdued by the Chahamanas in the 12th century
* Paramaras of
s claimed connection with the Paramaras. These include:
*
: Its rulers claimed membership of the Parmar clan and descent from the legendary king
: Its founder Anand Rao Puar, who claimed Paramara descent, received a fief from
: Its rulers claimed Paramara descent, and are said to have started out as feudatories of the
, who styled themselves as Ujjainiya Panwar Rajputs, started claiming descent from the royal family of Ujjain in the 17th century. The Rajas of Jagdishpur and Dumraon in Bihar claimed descent from the Ujjainia branch of Paramaras.
* The
also claim descent from the Paramara dynasty.
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{{Paramara dynasty