''Palythoa'' is a genus of
anthozoans in the order
Zoantharia
Zoanthids ( order Zoantharia also called Zoanthidea or Zoanthiniaria) are an order of cnidarians commonly found in coral reefs, the deep sea and many other marine environments around the world. These animals come in a variety of different coloniz ...
.
[Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27]
Description
The polyps of ''Palythoa'' are partially embedded in an encrusting mat of tissue (
coenenchyme Coenenchyme is the common tissue that surrounds and links the polyps in octocorals. It consists of mesoglea penetrated by tubes (''solenia'') and canals of the gastrodermis and contains sclerites, microscopic mineralised spicules of silica or of ca ...
) covering the substrate on which the colony grows. The individual polyps have flattened oral discs surrounded by a fringe of tentacles. The tentacles' shape and size can vary considerably between species, and even between colonies of the same species. Their colors are also highly variable, with relatively dull shades like cream, coffee, white, brown, or yellow, being the most common. Fluorescent colored colonies also exist, but these are more rare.
Palytoxin
Palytoxin
Palytoxin, PTX or PLTX is an intense vasoconstrictor, and is considered to be one of the most poisonous non-protein substances known, second only to maitotoxin in terms of toxicity in mice.
Palytoxin is a polyhydroxylated and partially unsaturat ...
is a highly toxic
fatty alcohol
Fatty alcohols (or long-chain alcohols) are usually high-molecular-weight, straight-chain primary alcohols, but can also range from as few as 4–6 carbons to as many as 22–26, derived from natural fats and oils. The precise chain length varies ...
produced by many species of ''Palythoa'', and is also found in other corals and certain marine invertebrates. The substance was first isolated from the seaweed-like "
limu-make-o-Hana" ("Seaweed of Death from Hana") in 1971 in
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
. Scientific investigation of the seaweed found it to be a colonial
cnidarian, which was classified as a
zoanthid and named ''
Palythoa toxica
''Palythoa toxica'', also referred to by its Hawaiian common name, limu-make-o-Hana ('seaweed of death from Hana'), is a species of zoanthid native to Hawaii. It is notable as the species in which palytoxin was discovered and from which it was f ...
''. Small quantities of
palytoxin
Palytoxin, PTX or PLTX is an intense vasoconstrictor, and is considered to be one of the most poisonous non-protein substances known, second only to maitotoxin in terms of toxicity in mice.
Palytoxin is a polyhydroxylated and partially unsaturat ...
can be fatal should it be ingested or inhaled.
The presence of this toxin is of significance to
aquarist
An aquarist is a person who manages aquariums, either professionally or as a hobby. They typically care for aquatic animals, including fish and marine invertebrates. Some may care for aquatic mammals. Aquarists often work at public aquariums. They ...
s who keep
reef aquarium
A reef aquarium or reef tank is a marine aquarium that prominently displays live corals and other marine invertebrates as well as fish that play a role in maintaining the tropical coral reef environment. A reef aquarium requires appropriately ...
s, as ''Palythoa'' and related zoanthids are commonly kept as decorative specimens in
marine aquaria. Aquarists have reported symptoms consistent with palytoxin poisoning prior to having exposure to zoanthids suspected to contain the toxin. One report involved an aquarist being accidentally poisoned through skin injuries after handling zoanthids. Another report involved an aquarium hobbyist in Virginia who experienced a severe respiratory reaction after trying to eradicate colonies of brown zoanthids (suspected to be ''Palythoa'') from rocks in their aquarium. A 2010 study found that a single specimen of ''Palythoa'' from a sample of fifteen colonies purchased from three aquarium stores in the
Washington D.C.
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, Na ...
area contained high levels of palytoxin, indicating that toxic individuals are present in the captive population.
While poisoning events have occurred, they are exceedingly rare, and many reef hobbyists have kept ''Palythoa'' without any adverse reactions. However, it is generally recommended to always wear appropriate protective gloves and goggles when reaching into aquaria and handling animals which are suspected to be toxic.
[Nicholas Violan]
Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You
Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine
Taxonomy and systematics
The genus ''Protopalythoa'' was once thought to be distinct from the genus ''Palythoa'' but is now considered to be a synonym.
Species
The following species are recognized in the genus ''Palythoa'':
* ''
Palythoa aggregata
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Lesson, 1830
* ''
Palythoa anneae
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Carlgren, 1938
* ''
Palythoa anthoplax
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax & Müller, 1957¹
* ''
Palythoa arenacea''
Heller, 1868
* ''
Palythoa argus''
Ehrenberg, 1834
* ''
Palythoa aspera''
Pax, 1909
* ''
Palythoa atogrisea
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa australiae
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Carlgren, 1937¹
* ''
Palythoa australiensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Carlgren, 1950
* ''
Palythoa bertholeti
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Gray, 1867
* ''
Palythoa brasiliensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Heider, 1899
* ''
Palythoa braunsi
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa brochi
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa buitendijkl
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa caesia
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Dana, 1846
* ''
Palythoa calcaria
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Muller, 1883
* ''
Palythoa calcigena
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa calycina''
Pax, 1909
* ''
Palythoa canalifera''
Pax, 1908
* ''
Palythoa canariensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Haddon & Duerden, 1896
* ''
Palythoa cancrisocia''
Martens, 1876
* ''
Palythoa capensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Haddon & Duerden, 1896¹
* ''
Palythoa caracasiana''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa caribaeorum
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
* ''
Palythoa ceresina
''Palythoa'' is a genus of coral, anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
D ...
''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa chlorostoma
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa cingulata''
Milne Edwards, 1857
* ''
Palythoa clavata''
(Duchassaing, 1850)
* ''
Palythoa complanata''
Carlgren, 1951¹
* ''
Palythoa congoensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1952
* ''
Palythoa dartevellei''
Pax, 1952
* ''
Palythoa densa
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Carlgren, 1954¹
* ''
Palythoa denudata''
Dana, 1846
* ''
Palythoa dura''
Carlgren, 1920
* ''
Palythoa durbanensis''
Carlgren, 1938¹
* ''
Palythoa dysancrita''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa eremita
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1920
* ''
Palythoa fatua
''Palythoa'' is a genus of coral, anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
D ...
''
Schultze, 1867
* ''
Palythoa flavoviridis''
Ehrenberg, 1834
* ''
Palythoa fuliginosa''
Dana, 1846
* ''
Palythoa fusca''
(Duerden, 1898)
* ''
Palythoa glareola
''Palythoa'' is a genus of coral, anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
D ...
''
(Lesueur, 1817)
* ''
Palythoa glutinosa
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864
* ''
Palythoa grandiflora''
(Verrill, 1900)
* ''
Palythoa grandis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
(Verrill, 1900)
* ''
Palythoa gregorii''
Haddon & Duerden, 1896
* ''
Palythoa gridellii''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa guangdongensis''
Zunan, 1998¹
* ''
Palythoa guinensis''
von Koch, 1886¹
* ''
Palythoa haddoni''
Carlgren, 1937¹
* ''
Palythoa halidosis''
Pax, 1952
* ''
Palythoa hartmeyeri''
Pax, 1910
* ''
Palythoa heideri
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Carlgren, 1954¹
* ''
Palythoa heilprini''
(Verrill, 1900)
* ''
Palythoa heliodiscus''
(Ryland & Lancaster, 2003)
* ''
Palythoa horstii
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa howesii''
Haddon & Shackleton, 1891¹
* ''
Palythoa hypopelia''
Pax, 1909
* ''
Palythoa ignota''
Carlgren, 1951
* ''
Palythoa incerta''
Carlgren, 1900
* ''
Palythoa insignis''
Carlgren, 1951
* ''
Palythoa irregularis''
Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
* ''
Palythoa isolata
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Verrill, 1907
* ''
Palythoa javanica''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa kochii
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
* ''
Palythoa leseuri
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
Klunzinger, 1877
* ''
Palythoa leucochiton''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa liscia''
Haddon & Duerden, 1896
* ''
Palythoa mammillosa''
(Ellis & Solander, 1786)
* ''
Palythoa mizigama''
Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
* ''
Palythoa monodi''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa multisulcata''
Carlgren, 1900¹
* ''
Palythoa mutuki''
(Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
* ''
Palythoa natalensis''
Carlgren, 1938
* ''
Palythoa nelliae''
Pax, 1935
* ''
Palythoa nigricans''
McMurrich, 1898
* ''
Palythoa oorti''
Pax, 1924
* ''
Palythoa psammophilia''
Walsh & Bowers, 1971
* ''
Palythoa senegalensis''
Pax & Muller, 1956
* ''
Palythoa senegambiensis
''Palythoa'' is a genus of coral, anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
D ...
''
Carter, 1882
* ''
Palythoa shackletoni''
Carlgren, 1937
* ''
Palythoa sinensis''
Zunan, 1998¹
* ''
Palythoa singaporensis''
Pax & Müller, 1956¹
* ''
Palythoa spongiosa
''Palythoa'' is a genus of coral, anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
D ...
''
Andres, 1883
* ''
Palythoa stephensoni''
Carlgren, 1937¹
* ''
Palythoa texaensis''
Carlgren & Hedgpeth, 1952
* ''
Palythoa titanophila''
Pax & Müller, 1957¹
* ''
Palythoa toxica
''Palythoa toxica'', also referred to by its Hawaiian common name, limu-make-o-Hana ('seaweed of death from Hana'), is a species of zoanthid native to Hawaii. It is notable as the species in which palytoxin was discovered and from which it was f ...
''
Walsh & Bowers, 1971
* ''
Palythoa tropica''
Carlgren, 1900
* ''
Palythoa tuberculosa
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
(Esper, 1791)
* ''
Palythoa umbrosa''
Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
* ''
Palythoa variabilis''
(Duerden, 1898)
* ''
Palythoa vestitus
''Palythoa'' is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2018-08-27
Descrip ...
''
(Verrill, 1928)
* ''
Palythoa wilsmoorei''
Wilsmore¹
* ''
Palythoa xishaensis''
Zunan, 1998¹
* ''
Palythoa yongei''
Carlgren, 1937¹
* ''
Palythoa zanzibarica''
Carlgren¹
¹Indicates Species Unreviewed: has not been verified by a taxonomic editor
Taxon inquirendum:
*''Palythoa anduzii''
(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
*''Palythoa auricula''
(Lesueur, 1817)
*''Palythoa brevis''
Andres, 1883
*''Palythoa casigneta''
Walsh, 1967
*''Palythoa distans''
(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1866)
*''Palythoa dubiae''
Walsh, 1967
*''Palythoa eupaguri''
Marion, 1882
*''Palythoa fulva''
Walsh, 1967
*''Palythoa fulva''
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
*''Palythoa gigantea''
Cubit & Williams, 1983
*''Palythoa glomerata''
Marion, 1882
*''Palythoa lutea''
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
*''Palythoa mcmurrichi''
(Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
*''Palythoa olivascens''
Brandt, 1835
*''Palythoa plana''
(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
*''Palythoa vanikorensis''
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
*''Palythoa viridifusca''
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
*''Palythoa viridis''
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
References
{{Taxonbar, from=Q3952232
Sphenopidae
Hexacorallia genera