The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth-crust-cutaway-english

Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four sphere ...

– all-embracing term for the

science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...

s related to the

planet A planet is a large, rounded astronomical body that is neither a star nor its remnant. The best available theory of planet formation is the nebular hypothesis, which posits that an interstellar cloud collapses out of a nebula to create a you ...

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...

. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in

planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of their ...

, the Earth being the only known

life Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energy ...

-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the

physical science Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". Definition Phys ...

s which is a part of the

natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...

s. It in turn has many branches.

Earth's spheres

Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the

natural environment The natural environment or natural world encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses t ...

(the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the

atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A ...

, the

biosphere The biosphere (from Greek βίος ''bíos'' "life" and σφαῖρα ''sphaira'' "sphere"), also known as the ecosphere (from Greek οἶκος ''oîkos'' "environment" and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also ...

, the

hydrosphere The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. This ...

and the geosphere. Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: *

Magnetosphere In astronomy and planetary science, a magnetosphere is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by that object's magnetic field. It is created by a celestial body with an active interior d ...

– The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field *

Atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A ...

, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) **By altitude ***

Exosphere The exosphere ( grc, ἔξω "outside, external, beyond", grc, σφαῖρα "sphere") is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the densi ...

– The outermost layer of an atmosphere *** Exobase – The lower boundary of the exosphere ***

Thermopause The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. The temperature of the thermopause could range from nearly absolute zero to . Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the i ...

– The upper boundary of the thermosphere ***

Thermosphere The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the ...

– The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the exosphere ***

Mesopause The mesopause is the point of minimum temperature at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions. Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide, the mesosphere is the cold ...

– The temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere ***

Mesosphere The mesosphere (; ) is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define its limits: it ...

– The layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere *** Stratopause – The upper boundary of the stratosphere ***

Stratosphere The stratosphere () is the second layer of the atmosphere of the Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is an atmospheric layer composed of stratified temperature layers, with the warm layers of air h ...

– The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere ****

Ozone layer The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in rel ...

– The region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation *** Tropopause – The boundary of the atmosphere between the troposphere and stratosphere ***

Troposphere The troposphere is the first and lowest layer of the atmosphere of the Earth, and contains 75% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere, 99% of the total mass of water vapour and aerosols, and is where most weather phenomena occur. Fro ...

– The lowest layer of the atmosphere ***

Planetary boundary layer In meteorology, the planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or peplosphere, is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behaviour is directly influenced by its contact with a planetary surface. On Ear ...

– The lowest part of the atmosphere, directly influenced by contact with the planetary surface **By air turbulence *** Heterosphere – Upper parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are not well mixed *** Turbopause – The altitude in the Earth's atmosphere below which turbulent mixing dominates *** Homosphere – Lower parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are well mixed **Other ***

Ionosphere The ionosphere () is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about to above sea level, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays ...

– The ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere *

Biosphere The biosphere (from Greek βίος ''bíos'' "life" and σφαῖρα ''sphaira'' "sphere"), also known as the ecosphere (from Greek οἶκος ''oîkos'' "environment" and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also ...

– The global sum of all ecosystems on Earth ** Anthroposphere – The part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitat ***

Noosphere The noosphere (alternate spelling noösphere) is a philosophical concept developed and popularized by the Russian-Ukrainian Soviet biogeochemist Vladimir Vernadsky, and the French philosopher and Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Verna ...

(rare) – The sphere of human thought *

Hydrosphere The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. This ...

– The combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite **

Cryosphere ] The cryosphere (from the Ancient Greek, Greek ''kryos'', "cold", "frost" or "ice" and ''sphaira'', "globe, ball") is an all-encompassing term for those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form, including sea ice, lake ice, ri ...

– Those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form * Geosphere/ Solid Earth – (Also sometimes a collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere) The union of all solid parts of Earth and the Inner of Earth. ** Pedosphere – The outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes **Outer layers ***By composition ****

Crust (geology) In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. It is usually distinguished from the underlying mantle by its chemical makeup; however, in the case of icy satellites, it may be disting ...

– The outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. ****

Moho Discontinuity Moho may refer to: Birds * ''Moho'' (genus), an extinct genus of birds in the family Mohoidae * The Hawaiian name of the Hawaiian rail, an extinct species * The Māori name of the North Island takahe, an extinct species * A local name for the ...

– The line between the crust and the Earth's mantle. ****

Earth's mantle Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. It has a mass of 4.01 × 1024 kg and thus makes up 67% of the mass of Earth. It has a thickness of making up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly so ...

– The part of the interior of the planet Earth between the crust and the core. ***By diffusion of seismic waves ****

Lithosphere A lithosphere () is the rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years ...

– The rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. ****

Asthenosphere The asthenosphere () is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between ~ below the surface, and extends as deep as . However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere is ...

– The highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth's upper mantle **** Mesozone – The part of the Earth's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, but above the outer core. **

Gutenberg discontinuity {{unreferenced, date=November 2020 The Gutenberg discontinuity occurs within Earth's interior at a depth of about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) below the surface, where there is an abrupt change in the seismic waves (generated by earthquakes or expl ...

– The line between the mantle and the Earth's core. ** Earth's core – The inner part of the planet, formed by differential buoyancy of the component materials causing the denser materials to accumulate nearer to the centre. *** Outer core – A fluid layer composed of mostly iron and nickel between Earth's solid inner core and its mantle. ***

Lehmann Discontinuity __NOTOC__ The Lehmann discontinuity is an abrupt increase of ''P''-wave and ''S''-wave velocities at the depth of , discovered by seismologist Inge Lehmann. The thickness is 220 km . It appears beneath continents, but not usually beneath ocean ...

– The line between the inner core and the outer core. *** Inner core – The innermost part of the Earth, a solid ball of iron-nickel alloy.

Branches of Earth science

Atmospheric science

Atmospheric sciences Atmospheric science is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and its various inner-working physical processes. Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study ...

– The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other systems *

Climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , '' -logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of stu ...

– The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time *

Paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology (British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to ...

– The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth *

Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorol ...

– The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied * Atmospheric physics – The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere * Paleotempestology – The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and historical documents

Geology

Geology Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other Astronomical object, astronomical objects, the features or rock (geology), rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology ...

– The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. **

Economic geology Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals and construction-grade stone. Economic geology is a subdisciplin ...

– Science concerned with earth materials of economic value **

Engineering geology Engineering geology is the application of geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and acc ...

– The application of the geology to engineering practice. ** Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. **

Quaternary geology Quaternary geology is the branch of geology that study developments from 2.6 million years ago onwards. In particular, Quaternary geology study the process and deposits that developed during the Quaternary, a period characterized by glacial-intergl ...

– The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago **

Planetary geology Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Although the ge ...

– The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects **

Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons ( oil exploration). Sedim ...

– The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels **

Historical geology Historical geology or palaeogeology is a discipline that uses the principles and methods of geology to reconstruct the geological history of Earth. Historical geology examines the vastness of geologic time, measured in billions of years, and inve ...

– The study of the geological history of Earth **

Hydrogeology Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aq ...

– The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater **

Structural geology Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover informati ...

– The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the earth's crust independent of extent *

Geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing th ...

– Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems *

Geochronology Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, whereas relative geochronology is ...

– Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils *

Geodesy Geodesy ( ) is the Earth science of accurately measuring and understanding Earth's figure (geometric shape and size), orientation in space, and gravity. The field also incorporates studies of how these properties change over time and equival ...

– The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth *

Geomagnetic Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic f ...

s – Study of the Earth's magnetic field * Geomicrobiology – Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology *

Glaciology Glaciology (; ) is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, c ...

– Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice *

Geophysics Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term ''geophysics'' so ...

– The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods * Micropaleontology – The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils *

Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the proce ...

– Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts **

Gemology Gemology or gemmology is the science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials. It is a geoscience and a branch of mineralogy. Some jewelers (and many non-jewelers) are academically trained gemologists and are qualified to identif ...

– Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials **

Mineral physics Mineral physics is the science of materials that compose the interior of planets, particularly the Earth. It overlaps with petrophysics, which focuses on whole-rock properties. It provides information that allows interpretation of surface measure ...

– The science of materials that compose the interior of planets *

Paleontology Paleontology (), also spelled palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It includes the study of fossi ...

– Scientific study of prehistoric life *

Palynology Palynology is the "study of dust" (from grc-gre, παλύνω, palynō, "strew, sprinkle" and ''-logy'') or of "particles that are strewn". A classic palynologist analyses particulate samples collected from the air, from water, or from deposit ...

– The study of dust *

Petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together ...

– The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks * Physical geodesy – The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field *

Sedimentology Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of m ...

– The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed *

Seismology Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other ...

– The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet ** Paleoseismology – The study of earthquakes that happened in the past *

Stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers ( strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...

– The study of rock layers and their formation *

Volcanology Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term ''volcanology'' is derived from the Latin word '' vulcan''. Vulcan was the an ...

– The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena

Geography

Geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...

– The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it. *

Physical geography Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere ...

– The branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography *

Human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment. It analyzes spatial interdependencies between social ...

– The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world *

Geostatistics Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probability distributions of ore grades for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including pe ...

– A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets *

Environmental chemistry Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as ...

– The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places * Environmental soil science – The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. *

Geographic information science Geographic information science or geographical information science (GIScience or GISc) is the scientific discipline that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans under ...

– Scientific study of geographic data and information * Edaphology – The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things. *

Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ''pedon'', "soil"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "study") is a discipline within soil science which focuses on understanding and characterizing soil formation, evolution, and the theoretical frameworks for modeling ...

– The study of soils in their natural environment *

Geomorphology Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: , ', "earth"; , ', "form"; and , ', "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or ...

– The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them * Spatial decision support systems – Computerised aid to land use decisions * Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) – Various satellite navigation systems *

Hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is call ...

– The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land. *

Meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did no ...

– Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting. *

Satellite navigation A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows satellite navigation devices to determine their location ( longitude, latitude, and altitude/ elevation) to hig ...

– Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide. autonomous geo-spatial positioning *

Remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Ear ...

– Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject. *

Photogrammetry Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant ima ...

– The science of making measurements using photography.

Oceanography

Oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynami ...

– The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean * Biological oceanography – The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. *

Physical oceanography Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters. Physical oceanography is one of several sub-domains into which oceanography is div ...

– The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean * Chemical oceanography – The study of

ocean chemistry Marine chemistry, also known as ocean chemistry or chemical oceanography, is influenced by plate tectonics and seafloor spreading, turbidity currents, sediments, pH levels, atmospheric constituents, metamorphic activity, and ecology. The fie ...

Paleoceanography Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation, chemistry, biology, geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity. Paleoceanographic studies using environment models ...

– The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past *

Limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ''limne'', "lake" and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteris ...

– The science of inland aquatic ecosystems * Marine geology – The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor

Planetary science

Planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of their ...

– The study of

s (including

moons A natural satellite is, in the most common usage, an astronomical body that orbits a planet, dwarf planet, or small Solar System body (or sometimes another natural satellite). Natural satellites are often colloquially referred to as ''moons'' ...

, and

planetary system A planetary system is a set of gravitationally bound non- stellar objects in or out of orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system, although such systems may also consi ...

s (in particular those of the

Solar System The Solar System Capitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Solar ...

) and the processes that form them. *

- study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects * Selenography - study of the surface and physical features of the Moon *

Theoretical planetology Theoretical planetology, also known as theoretical planetary science is a branch of planetary sciences that developed in the 20th century. Scientific models supported by laboratory experiments are used to understand the formation, evolution, and ...

- the theoretical study of the internal structure of

s by making assumptions about their

chemical A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., w ...

composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied o ...

pressure Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country a ...

, or

density Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is the substance's mass per unit of volume. The symbol most often used for density is ''ρ'' (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter ''D'' can also be used. Mathematicall ...

of material across the planet's internals.

History of Earth science

History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science. * History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. ***

History of atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteoro ...

History of biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, i ...

– history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. *

History of cartography The history of cartography refers to the development and consequences of cartography, or mapmaking technology, throughout human history. Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navi ...

– history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. *

History of climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , ''-logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of study ...

– history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time * History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. * History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. ** History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. *** History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology ***

History of marine biology Marine biology is a hybrid subject that combines aspects of organismal function, ecological interaction and the study of marine biodiversity. The earliest studies of marine biology trace back to the Phoenicians and the Greeks who are known as th ...

– history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water ***

History of parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it ...

– history of the Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. ***

History of population dynamics Population dynamics is the type of mathematics used to model and study the size and age composition of populations as dynamical systems. History Population dynamics has traditionally been the dominant branch of mathematical biology, which has a ...

– history of the Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. **History of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **History of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. **History of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. **

History of toxicology Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating ...

– history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. *

History of geodesy The history of geodesy deals with the historical development of measurements and representations of the Earth. The corresponding scientific discipline, '' geodesy'' ( /dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/), began in pre-scientific antiquity and blossomed during th ...

– history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space * History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth * History of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering. *

History of geology The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology. Geology is the scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of Earth. Antiquity Some of the first geological thoughts were about the ori ...

– history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. ** History of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. *

History of geomorphology Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: , ', "earth"; , ', "form"; and , ', "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or ...

– history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them * History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets *

History of geophysics The historical development of geophysics has been motivated by two factors. One of these is the research curiosity of humankind related to planet Earth and its several components, its events and its problems. The second is economical usage of Earth' ...

– history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. * History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. *

History of hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is calle ...

– history of the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. * History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). * History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. *

History of meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...

– history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events. * History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean *

History of paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology (American and British English spelling differences, British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the ...

– history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth * History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life *

History of petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together ...

– history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. * History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters *

History of seismology Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning " earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through o ...

– history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies *

History of soil science The early concepts of soil were based on ideas developed by a German chemist, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), and modified and refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples of soil in laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots ...

– history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. * History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. * History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.

Earth science programs

* NASA Earth Science

Earth science organizations

List of geoscience organizations This is a list of organizations dealing with the various geosciences, including geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. * * * * * * * * * *Asia Oceania Geosciences Society (AOGS) * * * (Ca ...

Earth science journals

People influential in Earth science

References

External links

Earth Science Picture of the Day
a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is a major NASA space research laboratory located approximately northeast of Washington, D.C. in Greenbelt, Maryland, United States. Established on May 1, 1959 as NASA's first space flight center, GSFC empl ...

Geoethics in Planetary and Space ExplorationNational Earth Science Teachers Association
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