Opothleyahola
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Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, Hopoeitheyohola, and Hopere Yahvlv (c. 1778 – March 22, 1863) was a
Muscogee Creek The Muscogee, also known as the Mvskoke, Muscogee Creek, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ( in the Muscogee language), are a group of related indigenous (Native American) peoples of the Southeastern WoodlandsUnited States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
government during the
Creek Wars The Creek War (1813–1814), also known as the Red Stick War and the Creek Civil War, was a regional war between opposing Indigenous American Creek factions, European empires and the United States, taking place largely in modern-day Alabama ...
. Later he tried to overturn the Treaty of Indian Springs, but was forced to make a new treaty with the federal government in 1832. He was commissioned as a colonel and led forces against remaining Lower Creek and the
Seminole The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
in Florida in the first two wars of the US against them. Despite his efforts, he and his people were among the Seminole and others forced to remove to Indian Territory in 1836, where they settled in the
Unassigned Lands The Unassigned Lands in Oklahoma were in the center of the lands ceded to the United States by the Creek (Muskogee) and Seminole Indians following the Civil War and on which no other tribes had been settled. By 1883 it was bounded by the Chero ...
. During the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states th ...
, Opothleyahola was among the minority of Creek in
Indian Territory The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
who supported the
Union Union commonly refers to: * Trade union, an organization of workers * Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets Union may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * Union (band), an American rock group ** ''Un ...
. Because of rising conflict within the tribe, he led his followers to Kansas as a refuge. They engaged in three battles against the opposition along the way. Their journey became known as the
Trail of Blood on Ice The Trail of Blood on Ice was a December 1861 campaign in the American Civil War in which pro-Union Native Americans, led by Upper Creek Chief Opothleyahola, fought their way north from Indian Territory (then under Confederate States of America, Con ...
, because the people suffered harsh conditions. Some people were housed at a federal fort, others in refugee camps in Kansas. All suffered from inadequate supplies, disease, and harsh winters. Opothleyahola died during the war at one of the refugee camps in Kansas.


Early life and education

Opothleyahola was born circa 1780 at
Tuckabatchee Tukabatchee or Tuckabutche ( Creek: ''Tokepahce'' ) is one of the four mother towns of the Muscogee Creek confederacy.Isham, Theodore and Blue Clark"Creek (Mvskoke)." ''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.'' ...
, the Creek capital of the Upper Creek Towns, located in present-day
Elmore County, Alabama Elmore County is a county located in the east central portion of the U.S. state of Alabama. As of the 2020 census, the population was 87,977. Its county seat is Wetumpka. Its name is in honor of General John A. Elmore. Elmore County is part o ...
. The Upper Creeks comprised the majority of the nation.Eddings, Anna. ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''. " Opothleyahola." His name literally translated means 'child', 'good', 'whooper' or 'good speaker'. Langguth says the name could be translated as "...good shouting child." According to the ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History'', his father was Davy Cornell, a
mixed-blood The term mixed-blood in the United States and Canada has historically been described as people of multiracial backgrounds, in particular mixed European and Native American ancestry. Today, the term is often seen as pejorative. Northern Woodla ...
Creek, and his mother was a full-blood Creek; her name is not known. The historian
Angie Debo Angie Elbertha Debo (January 30, 1890 – February 21, 1988),
found evidence suggesting that the boy's father was David Evans, a trader of Welsh descent. He may have taught him English and literacy, or sent him to a European-American school. While Opothleyahola was of European and Creek ancestry, he was born to a Creek mother, and thus considered part of her clan and the tribe by birth, and reared as Creek. The Creek had a
matrilineal Matrilineality is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's Lineage (anthropology), lineage – and which can in ...
kinship In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that ...
system of property holding and descent, and the mother's family and clan determined the status of her children. Traditionally, her brothers were more important in rearing the children than was the biological father. For instance, a maternal uncle would teach a boy men's roles, and introduce him to men's societies.


Politics

Under pressure from European Americans, Lower Creek leaders had made treaties with the state of Georgia to cede former hunting lands in 1790, 1802 and 1804. The Lower Creek had long had more interaction with European Americans, who had come as traders and settlers since the colonial period. The Creek had already lost use of the land for hunting because of settler encroachment. They began to adopt more farming practices in order to survive. Under pressure from Georgia and its settlers, they also had more relationship with
Benjamin Hawkins Benjamin Hawkins (August 15, 1754June 6, 1816) was an American planter, statesman and a U.S. Indian agent He was a delegate to the Continental Congress and a United States Senator from North Carolina, having grown up among the planter elite ...
, the US Indian agent of the Southeast. The tensions between the Upper Creek and Lower Creek broke out into violence in 1812 in what was at first a civil war. The Red Sticks of the Upper Creek wanted to revive traditional culture and religion, and resisted assimilation, as well as the land cessions. Opothleyahola is believed to have allied with the British against the US forces as early as the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It bega ...
. He was among the Red Sticks in the
Creek War The Creek War (1813–1814), also known as the Red Stick War and the Creek Civil War, was a regional war between opposing Indigenous American Creek factions, European empires and the United States, taking place largely in modern-day Alabama ...
of 1813–1814. This ended with defeat by General
Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, he gained fame as ...
, who commanded a large allied force, including Lower Creek, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. After the defeat, Opothleyahola swore his allegiance to the Federal government.


Leader of the Creek

Later the young man developed as an influential and eloquent speaker. He was selected to the role as Speaker for the chiefs, which was a distinct position on the National Council. He later became a "diplomatic chief."Chris Rein, "The U.S. Army, Indian Agency, and the Path to Assimilation: The First Indian Home Guards in the American Civil War"
''Kansas History'', Spring 2013, accessed 18 June 2014
Opothleyahola also became a wealthy trader and owned a 2,000-acre (8 km2)
cotton plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
near North Fork Town. As did other Creek and members of the Five Civilized Tribes, he purchased and held enslaved African Americans as workers for his plantation. In other adaptations to European-American culture, Opothleyahola joined the
Freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
s and accepted Christianity, becoming a
Baptist Baptists form a major branch of Protestantism distinguished by baptizing professing Christian believers only (believer's baptism), and doing so by complete immersion. Baptist churches also generally subscribe to the doctrines of soul compete ...
. Alarmed by the land cessions made by chiefs of the Lower Towns without tribal consensus, the National Council of the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions by tribal members a capital offense. In 1825,
William McIntosh William McIntosh (1775 – April 30, 1825),Hoxie, Frederick (1996)pp. 367-369/ref> was also commonly known as ''Tustunnuggee Hutke'' (White Warrior), was one of the most prominent chiefs of the Creek Nation between the turn of the nineteenth cen ...
and several Lower Creek chiefs signed the second Treaty of Indian Springs with the US, by which they gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia in exchange for payment and removal to lands west of the Mississippi River. By then, McIntosh and others of the Treaty Party believed that removal was inevitable, given the increasing numbers of European-American settlers entering their region, and they wanted to get the best deal possible for the Creek Nation. But the National Council had not given up on trying to resist United States encroachment. It passed a death sentence, supported by Opothleyahola, against McIntosh and other signatories of the 1825 Treaty. The chief ''
Menawa Menawa, first called ''Hothlepoya'' (c. 1765 – c. 1836-40), was a Muscogee (Creek) chief and military leader. He was of mixed race, with a Creek mother and a fur trader father of mostly Scots ancestry. As the Creek had a matrilineal syst ...
'' led 200 warriors to attack McIntosh at his plantation. They killed him and another signatory chief, and burned down McIntosh's mansion. The Creek elders realized that they would need experienced negotiators to present their case to Federal authorities. While Opothleyahola was a persuasive speaker, he was not fluent in the English language. They turned to the Cherokee for assistance.
Major Ridge Major Ridge, The Ridge (and sometimes Pathkiller II) (c. 1771 – 22 June 1839) (also known as ''Nunnehidihi'', and later ''Ganundalegi'') was a Cherokee leader, a member of the tribal council, and a lawmaker. As a warrior, he fought in the ...
, a Cherokee leader, recommended that the Creek retain his son,
John Ridge John Ridge, born ''Skah-tle-loh-skee'' (ᏍᎦᏞᎶᏍᎩ, Yellow Bird) ( – 22 June 1839), was from a prominent family of the Cherokee Nation, then located in present-day Georgia. He went to Cornwall, Connecticut, to study at the Foreign Mis ...
, and David Vann, who were well-educated young men fluent in English, to travel with Opothleyahola and help prepare his negotiating positions. The Creek National Council, led by Opothleyahola, went to Washington, D.C., to protest the illegality of the 1825 treaty, saying its signatories did not have consensus of the council. President
John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829. He previously served as the eighth United States S ...
was sympathetic. The US government and the chiefs made a new treaty with more favorable terms, the
Treaty of Washington (1826) The 1826 Treaty of Washington was a treaty between the United States and the Creek Confederacy, led by Opothleyahola. The Creek National Council ceded much of their territory bordering Georgia to the United States. The Creek Confederacy was a co ...
.Meserve, John Bartlett
"Chief Opothleyahola." In: ''Chronicles of Oklahoma''. Volume 9, Number 4, 1931.
Retrieved December 27, 2013.
But Georgia officials began forcibly removing the Indians from lands it claimed under the 1825 treaty. In addition, the state ignored the 1832 US Supreme Court ruling in ''
Worcester v. Georgia ''Worcester v. Georgia'', 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515 (1832), was a landmark case in which the Supreme Court of the United States, United States Supreme Court Vacated judgment, vacated the conviction of Samuel Worcester and held that the Georgia criminal ...
,'' which said that the state's legislation to regulate activities within American Indian territories was unconstitutional. When the
Alabama (We dare defend our rights) , anthem = "Alabama (state song), Alabama" , image_map = Alabama in United States.svg , seat = Montgomery, Alabama, Montgomery , LargestCity = Huntsville, Alabama, Huntsville , LargestCounty = Baldwin County, Al ...
legislature also acted to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creek people, Opothleyahola appealed to the administration of
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, he gained fame as ...
. But he had already signed the 1830
Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President Andrew Jackson. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for ...
and wanted the Creek and other tribes to move west, to extinguish their land titles in the east. Given no relief, the Upper Creek signed the
Treaty of Cusseta The Treaty of Cusseta was a treaty between the government of the United States and the Creek Nation signed March 24, 1832 (). The treaty ceded all Creek claims east of the Mississippi River to the United States. Origins The Treaty of Cusseta, ...
on March 24, 1832, which divided Creek lands into individual allotments. They could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to
Indian Territory The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
, or stay in Alabama as state and US citizens and submit to the state laws. In 1834, Opothleyahola traveled to
Nacogdoches, Texas Nacogdoches ( ) is a small city in East Texas and the county seat of Nacogdoches County, Texas, United States. The 2020 U.S. census recorded the city's population at 32,147. Nacogdoches is a sister city of the smaller, similarly named Natchito ...
, to try to purchase communal land for his people. After he had paid landowners $20,000, pressure from both the Mexican and American governments forced Opothleyahola to abandon the idea. In 1836, Opothleyahola, commissioned as a
colonel Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
by the U.S. government, led 1,500 of his warriors against remaining rebellious Lower Creek, who had allied with
Seminole The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
in Florida in fighting European-American occupation. Soon after, the US Army rounded up the remaining Creek and other Southeast Indian peoples and forced their emigration to
Indian Territory The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
, on what was known as the "
Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears was an ethnic cleansing and forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 by the United States government. As part of the Indian removal, members of the Cherokee, ...
." In 1837, Opothleyahola led 8,000 of his people from Alabama to lands north of the
Canadian River The Canadian River is the longest tributary of the Arkansas River in the United States. It is about long, starting in Colorado and traveling through New Mexico, the Texas Panhandle, and Oklahoma. The drainage area is about .Indian Territory The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
, what were then called Unassigned Lands. (It is now part of the state of
Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw language, Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the nor ...
). Over time, they began to specialize in stock raising and grain production there, as neither the land nor climate were suitable for subsistence farming.


Civil War

At the outbreak of the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states th ...
, Opothleyahola and Creek remained loyal to the federal government. They believed the Southern populations in Georgia and Alabama had forced their removal. The Lower Creek and some of the other of the Southeastern tribes, who had specialized in cotton production, held numerous slaves and had more cultural contacts with white settlers. They supported the Confederacy, which promised them an Indian-controlled state if they won the war. Tensions within the Creek Nation increased during this period because the Confederacy tried to convince it and other Indian nations to tighten slave codes in Indian Territory.Zellar, Gary. ''African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation'' (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), p. 43 Those Creek with African ancestry resented the restrictions of proposed "black codes," and became more affiliated toward the Union. Refugee enslaved African Americans, free people of color,
Chickasaw The Chickasaw ( ) are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee as well in southwestern Kentucky. Their language is classified as ...
and
Seminole Indians The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
also began gathering at Opothleyahola's plantation. They hoped to remain neutral in the conflict between the
North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography. Etymology T ...
and
South South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...
. On August 15, 1861, Opothleyahola and tribal chief Micco Hutko contacted President
Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation thro ...
to request help for the loyalists. On September 10, they received a positive response, saying that the United States government would assist them. The letter directed Opothleyahola to move his people to
Fort Row Fort Row, located on the south bank of the Verdigris River and east of the present town of Coyville, Kansas, was built in the fall of 1861, probably in October. It was built by the local mounted militia for their use. However, the fort became asso ...
in
Wilson County, Kansas Wilson County (standard abbreviation: WL) is a county located in Southeast Kansas. As of the 2020 census, the county population was 8,624. Its county seat is Fredonia. History Early history For many millennia, the Great Plains of North Am ...
, where they would receive asylum and aid.Woodson County history
On November 15,
Confederate Confederacy or confederate may refer to: States or communities * Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities * Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1 ...
Col. Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
Douglas H. Cooper Douglas Hancock Cooper (November 1, 1815 – April 29, 1879) was an American politician, soldier, Indian Agent in what is now Oklahoma, and Confederate States Army, Confederate general during the American Civil War. Early life and career Cooper ...
, a former US Indian Agent, led 1,400 men, including pro-Confederate Indians, northward; he intended either to convince Opothleyahola and his followers to support the Confederacy or to "drive him and his party from the country." Believing Federal promises of assistance, Opothleyahola led his band (including
Seminole The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
under
Halleck Tustenuggee Halleck Tustenuggee (also spelled Halek Tustenuggee and Hallock Tustenuggee) (c. 1807 – ?) was a 19th-century Seminole war chief. He fought against the United States government in the Second Seminole War and for the government in the American Ci ...
) toward Kansas. Along the way, they had to fight three battles against their pursuers, and had lost many of their goods in their quick departure. At Round Mountain, Opothleyahola's forces drove back the Confederates to
Fort Gibson Fort Gibson is a historic military site next to the modern city of Fort Gibson, in Muskogee County Oklahoma. It guarded the American frontier in Indian Territory from 1824 to 1888. When it was constructed, the fort was farther west than any othe ...
. In December, the loyalists suffered a tactical loss at Chusto-Talasah and a crushing defeat at the
Battle of Chustenahlah The Battle of Chustenahlah was fought in Osage County, Oklahoma, (then Indian Territory) on December 26, 1861, during the American Civil War. A band of 9,000 pro-Union Native Americans was forced to flee to Kansas in bitter cold and snow in wh ...
. He lost an estimated 2,000 of his 9,000 followers from the battles, disease, and bitter winter blizzards during their ill-fated trek to
Fort Row Fort Row, located on the south bank of the Verdigris River and east of the present town of Coyville, Kansas, was built in the fall of 1861, probably in October. It was built by the local mounted militia for their use. However, the fort became asso ...
. The fort had been unable to get extra supplies, and lacked adequate medical support and supplies to care for the refugees. The Creek were forced to move to
Fort Belmont Fort Belmont, in southern Woodson County, Kansas, was built about 1860 near the town of Belmont. It was to protect the settlers there from attacks by Border Ruffians and Indians. The fort consisted of three or four officer cabins, a redoubt about ...
, but conditions were still very poor. The majority of the Creek had only the clothes on their backs and lacked proper footwear and shelter, as they had left in a hurry. Many Creek died that winter, among them Opothleyahola's daughter. Conditions for the Creek in Kansas continued to be very harsh. Opothleyahola died in the Creek refugee camp near the Sac and Fox Agency at Quenemo in
Osage County, Kansas Osage County (county code OS) is a County (United States), county located in the U.S. state of Kansas. As of the 2020 United States Census, 2020 census, the county population was 15,766. Its county seat is Lyndon, Kansas, Lyndon, and its most po ...
, on March 22, 1863. He was buried beside his daughter near Fort Belmont in
Woodson County, Kansas Woodson County (standard abbreviation: WO) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas. As of the 2020 census, the county population was 3,115. Its county seat is Yates Center. History Early history For many millennia, the Great Plains ...
.White, p. 156-157.


References


Sources

*Clark, Carter Blue. "Opothleyahola and the Creeks During the Civil War," ''Indian Leaders: Oklahoma's First Statesmen,'' ed. H. Glenn Jordan and Thomas M. Holm (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1979). * Debo, Angie. ''The Road to Disappearance: A History of the Creek Indians'' (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1941). * Downing, David C. ''A South Divided: Portraits of Dissent in the Confederacy''. Nashville: Cumberland House, 2007. * Jordan, H. Glenn and Thomas M. Holm, ed. ''Indian Leaders: Oklahoma's First Statesmen'' (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1979) * McBride, Lela J. ''Opothleyahola and the Loyal Muscogee: Their Flight to Kansas in the Civil War'' (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2000), p. 145 * * White, Christine Schultz and White, Benton R., ''Now The Wolf Has Come: The Creek Nation in the Civil War'', Texas A & M University Press, 1996. . * U.S. War Department, ''The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies'', 70 volumes in 4 series. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1880–1901. Series 1, Volume 8, Part 1.
Woodson County history
Skyways, State of Kansas Library *Zellar, Gary. ''African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation'' (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007) {{Authority control 1798 births 1863 deaths Muscogee slave owners Native American leaders Native Americans in the American Civil War People from Elmore County, Alabama People of Indian Territory Native Americans of the Seminole Wars People of Indian Territory in the American Civil War