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Frankish ( reconstructed
endonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
: *), also known as Old Franconian or Old Frankish, was the
West Germanic language The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three branches of the Germanic family of languages (the others being the North Germanic and the extinct East Germanic languages). The West Germanic branch is classically subdivided into t ...
spoken by the
Franks The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems River, on the edge of the Roman Empire.H. Schutz: Tools ...
from the 5th to 9th century. After the Salian Franks settled in
Roman Gaul Roman Gaul refers to GaulThe territory of Gaul roughly corresponds to modern-day France, Belgium and Luxembourg, and adjacient parts of the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany. under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century ...
, its speakers in
Picardy Picardy (; Picard and french: Picardie, , ) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of France. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region of Hauts-de-France. It is located in the northern part of France. Hist ...
and
Île-de-France The Île-de-France (, ; literally "Isle of France") is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France. Centred on the capital Paris, it is located in the north-central part of the country and often called the ''Région parisienne'' (; en, Pa ...
were outnumbered by the local populace who spoke Proto-Romance dialects. However, a number of modern
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
words and place names, including the eventual country's name of "France", have a Frankish (i.e. Germanic) origin. France itself is still known by terms literally meaning the "
Frankish Realm Francia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks ( la, Regnum Francorum), Frankish Kingdom, Frankland or Frankish Empire ( la, Imperium Francorum), was the largest post-Roman barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Franks duri ...
" in languages such as
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
(),
Yiddish Yiddish (, or , ''yidish'' or ''idish'', , ; , ''Yidish-Taytsh'', ) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a ve ...
( ), Dutch (), the derived
Afrikaans Afrikaans (, ) is a West Germanic language that evolved in the Dutch Cape Colony from the Dutch vernacular of Holland proper (i.e., the Hollandic dialect) used by Dutch, French, and German settlers and their enslaved people. Afrikaans gr ...
(), and Danish () as well as Swedish and Norwegian (). Between the 5th and 9th centuries, Frankish spoken in Northwestern France, present-day Belgium and the Netherlands is subsequently referred to as
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
, whereas the Frankish varieties spoken in the Rhineland were heavily influenced by Elbe Germanic dialects and the
Second Germanic consonant shift In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development (sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probably ...
and would form part of the modern
Central Franconian Central Franconian (german: mittelfränkische Dialekte, mittelfränkische Mundarten, mittelfränkische Mundart, Mittelfränkisch) refers to the following continuum of West Central German dialects: * Ripuarian (spoken in the German state of Nort ...
and
Rhine Franconian __NOTOC__ Rhenish Franconian or Rhine Franconian (german: Rheinfränkisch ) is a dialect chain of West Central German. It comprises the varieties of German spoken across the western regions of the states of Saarland, Rhineland-Palatinate, nor ...
dialects of
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
and
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; Luxembourgish: ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. As a standard form of th ...
. The Old Frankish language is poorly attested and mostly reconstructed from Frankish loanwords in
Old French Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intel ...
, and from Old Dutch, as recorded in the 6th to 12th centuries. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription, which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish.


Nomenclature

Germanic philology Germanic philology is the philological study of the Germanic languages, particularly from a comparative or historical perspective. The beginnings of research into the Germanic languages began in the 16th century, with the discovery of literary tex ...
and
German studies German studies is the field of humanities that researches, documents and disseminates German language and literature in both its historic and present forms. Academic departments of German studies often include classes on German culture, Germa ...
have their origins in the first half of the 19th century when
Romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate ...
and Romantic thought heavily influenced the lexicon of the
linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Lingu ...
s and
philologist Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined ...
s of the time, including pivotal figures such as the
Brothers Grimm The Brothers Grimm ( or ), Jacob (1785–1863) and Wilhelm (1786–1859), were a brother duo of German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers, and authors who together collected and published folklore. They are among th ...
. As a result, many contemporary linguists tried to incorporate their findings in an already existing historical framework of " stem duchies" and (lit. "old tribes", i.e. the six Germanic tribes then thought to have formed the "German nation" in the traditional German nationalism of the elites) resulting in a
taxonomy Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...
which spoke of " Bavarian", "
Saxon The Saxons ( la, Saxones, german: Sachsen, ang, Seaxan, osx, Sahson, nds, Sassen, nl, Saksen) were a group of Germanic * * * * peoples whose name was given in the early Middle Ages to a large country (Old Saxony, la, Saxonia) near the Nor ...
", " Frisian", "
Thuringian Thuringian is an East Central German dialect group spoken in much of the modern German Free State of Thuringia north of the Rennsteig ridge, southwestern Saxony-Anhalt and adjacent territories of Hesse and Bavaria. It is close to Upper Saxon sp ...
", "
Swabian Swabian or Schwabian, or ''variation'', may refer to: * the German region of Swabia (German: "''Schwaben''") * Swabian German, a dialect spoken in Baden-Württemberg in south-west Germany and adjoining areas (German:"''Schwäbisch''") * Danube S ...
" and " Frankish" dialects. While this nomenclature became generally accepted in traditional Germanic philology, it has also been described as "inherently inaccurate" as these ancient ethnic boundaries (as understood in the 19th century) bore little or limited resemblance to the actual or historical linguistic situation of the Germanic languages. Among other problems, this traditional classification of the continental West Germanic dialects can suggest stronger ties between dialects than is linguistically warranted. The Franconian group is a well known example of this, with East Franconian being much more closely related to Bavarian dialects than it is to Dutch, which is traditionally placed in the
Low Franconian Low Franconian, Low Frankish, NetherlandicSarah Grey Thomason, Terrence Kaufman: ''Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics'', University of California Press, 1991, p. 321. (Calling it "Low Frankish (or Netherlandish)".)Scott Shay ...
sub-grouping and with which it was thought to have had a common, tribal origin. In a modern
linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...
context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and refers to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the
High German consonant shift In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development ( sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probabl ...
, which took place between 600 and 700 CE. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Dutch not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so to varying degrees. As a result, the distinction between
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called Old Low Franconian) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.B. Mees
"The Bergakker inscription and the beginnings of Dutch"
in: , edited by Erika Langbroek, Annelies Roeleveld, Paula Vermeyden, Arend Quak, Published by Rodopi, 2002, , 9789042015791


History


Origins

The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups:
West West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
,
East East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fac ...
and
North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. Etymology The word ''north ...
Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the
Migration Period The Migration Period was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of the post-Roma ...
, rendering some individual varieties difficult to classify. The language spoken by the Franks was part of the West Germanic language group, which had features from
Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. Proto-Germanic eventually developed from pre-Proto-Germanic into three Germanic br ...
in the late Jastorf culture (ca. 1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of
phonological Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
and morphological innovations not found in North and East Germanic. The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups:
Ingvaeonic North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic , is a postulated grouping of the northern West Germanic languages that consists of Old Frisian, Old English, and Old Saxon, and their descendants. Ingvaeonic is named after the Ingaevones, a West Ge ...
(North Sea Germanic),
Istvaeonic Weser-Rhine Germanic is a proposed group of prehistoric West Germanic dialects which would have been both directly ancestral to Dutch, as well as being a notable substratum influencing West Central German dialects. The term was introduced by the G ...
(Weser-Rhine Germanic) and
Irminonic Elbe Germanic, also called Irminonic or Erminonic, is a term introduced by the German linguist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984) in his book, ''Nordgermanen und Alemanen'', to describe the unattested proto-language, or dialectal grouping, ancestra ...
(Elbe Germanic). While each had its own distinct characteristics, there certainly must have still been a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects. In fact, it is unclear whether the West Germanic continuum of this time period, or indeed Franconian itself, should still be considered a single language or if it should be considered a collection of similar dialects. In any case, it appears that the Frankish tribes, or the later Franks, fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group, with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest (still seen in modern Dutch), and more Irminonic (High German) influences towards the southeast.


Salian and Ripuarian Franks (210–500)

The scholarly consensus concerning the
Migration Period The Migration Period was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of the post-Roma ...
is that the Frankish identity emerged during the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller Germanic groups, including the Salii,
Sicambri The Sicambri, also known as the Sugambri or Sicambrians, were a Germanic people who during Roman times lived on the east bank of the river Rhine, in what is now Germany, near the border with the Netherlands. They were first reported by Julius C ...
, Chamavi, Bructeri,
Chatti The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe whose homeland was near the upper Weser (''Visurgis''). They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in the val ...
,
Chattuarii The Chattuarii, also spelled Attoarii, were a Germanic tribe of the Franks. They lived originally north of the Rhine in the area of the modern border between Germany and the Netherlands, but then moved southwards in the 4th century, as a Frankish ...
, Ampsivarii, Tencteri,
Ubii 350px, The Ubii around AD 30 The Ubii were a Germanic tribe first encountered dwelling on the east bank of the Rhine in the time of Julius Caesar, who formed an alliance with them in 55 BC in order to launch attacks across the river. They were ...
, Batavi, and
Tungri The Tungri (or Tongri, or Tungrians) were a tribe, or group of tribes, who lived in the Belgic part of Gaul, during the times of the Roman Empire. Within the Roman Empire, their territory was called the ''Civitas Tungrorum''. They were described b ...
. It is speculated that these tribes originally spoke a range of related Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic. Sometime in the 4th or 5th centuries, it becomes appropriate to speak of Old Franconian rather than an Istvaeonic dialect of Proto-Germanic. Very little is known about what the language was like during this period. One older runic sentence (dating from around 425–450 AD) is on the sword sheath of Bergakker which is either the singular direct attestation of the Old Franconian language or the earliest attestation of Old Low Franconian (Old Dutch) language. Another early sentence from the early 6th century AD (that is described as the earliest sentence in
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
as well) is found in the Lex Salica. This phrase was used to free a
serf Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery, which developed ...
: :"Maltho thi afrio lito" :(I say, I free you, half-free.) These are the earliest sentences yet found of Old Franconian. During this early period, the Franks were divided politically and geographically into two groups: the Salian Franks and the
Ripuarian Franks Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks (Latin: ''Ripuarii'' or ''Ribuarii'') were one of the two main groupings of early Frankish people, and specifically it was the name eventually applied to the tribes who settled in the old Roman territory of the Ubii, ...
. The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Salian Franks during this period is sometimes referred to as early "Old Low Franconian", and consisted of two groups: "Old West Low Franconian" and "Old East Low Franconian". The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the
Ripuarian Franks Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks (Latin: ''Ripuarii'' or ''Ribuarii'') were one of the two main groupings of early Frankish people, and specifically it was the name eventually applied to the tribes who settled in the old Roman territory of the Ubii, ...
are referred to just as Old Franconian dialects (or, by some, as Old Frankish dialects). However, as already stated above, it may be more accurate to think of these dialects not as early Old Franconian but as Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic.


Frankish Empire (500–900)

At around 500 AD the Franks probably spoke a range of related dialects and languages rather than a single uniform dialect or language. The language of both government and the Church was Latin.


Area


Austrasia

During the expansion into France and Germany, many Frankish people remained in the original core Frankish territories in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders, a small part of northern France and the adjoining area in Germany centred on Cologne). The Franks united as a single group under Salian Frank leadership around 500 AD. Politically, the Ripuarian Franks existed as a separate group only until about 500 AD, after which they were subsumed into the Salian Franks. The Franks were united, but the various Frankish groups must have continued to live in the same areas, and speak the same dialects, although as a part of the growing Frankish Kingdom. There must have been a close relationship between the various Franconian dialects. There was also a close relationship between Old Low Franconian (i.e. Old Dutch) and its neighbouring
Old Saxon Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German, was a Germanic language and the earliest recorded form of Low German (spoken nowadays in Northern Germany, the northeastern Netherlands, southern Denmark, the Americas and parts of Eastern Europe). I ...
and
Old Frisian Old Frisian was a West Germanic language spoken between the 8th and 16th centuries along the North Sea coast, roughly between the mouths of the Rhine and Weser rivers. The Frisian settlers on the coast of South Jutland (today's Northern Fries ...
languages and dialects to the north and northeast, as well as the related
Old English Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th ...
(Anglo-Saxon) dialects spoken in southern and eastern Britain. A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south.Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. . Franks continued to reside in their original territories and to speak their original dialects and languages. It is not known what they called their language, but it is possible that they always called it "
Diets The Low Countries comprise the coastal Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta region in Western Europe, whose definition usually includes the modern countries of Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Both Belgium and the Netherlands derived their ...
" (i.e. "the people's language"), or something similar. Philologists think of
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
and Old West Low Franconian as being the same language. However, sometimes reference is made to a transition from the language spoken by the Salian Franks to
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
. The language spoken by the Salian Franks must have developed significantly during the seven centuries from 200 to 900 AD. At some point the language spoken by the Franks must have become identifiably Dutch. Because Franconian texts are almost non-existent and
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
texts scarce and fragmentary, it is difficult to determine when such a transition occurred, but it is thought to have happened by the end of the 9th century and perhaps earlier. By 900 AD the language spoken was recognisably an early form of Dutch, but that might also have been the case earlier.de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27. On page 25: "''…Een groot deel van het noorden van Frankrijk was in die tijd tweetalig Germaans-Romaans, en gedurende een paar eeuwen handhaafde het Germaans zich er. Maar in de zevende eeuw begon er opnieuw een romaniseringsbeweging en door de versmelting van beide volken werd de naam Franken voortaan ook gebezigd voor de Romanen ten noordern van de Loire. Frankisch of François werd de naam de (Romaanse) taal. De nieuwe naam voor de Germaanse volkstaal hield hiermee verband: Diets of Duits, dat wil zeggen "volks", "volkstaal".'' [At that time a large part of the north of France was bilingual Germanic/Romance, and for a couple of centuries Germanic held its own. But in the seventh century a wave of romanisation began anew and because of the merging of the two peoples the name for the Franks was used for the Romance speakers north of the Loire. "Frankonian/Frankish" or "François" became the name of the (Romance) language. The new name for the Germanic vernacular was related to this: "Diets"" or "Duits", i.e. "of the people", "the people's language"]. Page 27: "''…Aan het einde van de negende eeuw kan er zeker van Nederlands gesproken worden; hoe long daarvoor dat ook het geval was, kan niet met zekerheid worden uitgemaakt.''" [It can be said with certainty that Dutch was being spoken at the end of the 9th century; how long that might have been the case before that cannot be determined with certainty.]
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
made the transition to
Middle Dutch Middle Dutch is a collective name for a number of closely related West Germanic dialects whose ancestor was Old Dutch. It was spoken and written between 1150 and 1500. Until the advent of Modern Dutch after 1500 or c. 1550, there was no overarc ...
around 1150. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today). Even though living in the original territory of the Franks, these Franks seem to have broken with the
endonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
"Frank" around the 9th century. By this time the Frankish identity had changed from an ethnic identity to a national identity, becoming localized and confined to the modern ''
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper ...
'' in Germany and principally to the French province of ''
Île-de-France The Île-de-France (, ; literally "Isle of France") is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France. Centred on the capital Paris, it is located in the north-central part of the country and often called the ''Région parisienne'' (; en, Pa ...
''.


Gaul

The Franks expanded south into
Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
. Although the Franks would eventually conquer almost all of Gaul, speakers of Old Franconian apparently expanded only into northern Gaul in numbers sufficient to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory (
Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward. Through time, Vulgar Latin would evolve into numerous Romance languages. Its literary counterpa ...
and Franconian). The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. Eventually, the Franks who had settled more to the south of this area in northern Gaul started adopting the
Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward. Through time, Vulgar Latin would evolve into numerous Romance languages. Its literary counterpa ...
of the local population. This
Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward. Through time, Vulgar Latin would evolve into numerous Romance languages. Its literary counterpa ...
language acquired the name of the people who came to speak it (Frankish or ''Français''); north of the French-Dutch language boundary, the language was no longer referred to as "Frankish" (if it ever was referred to as such) but rather came to be referred to as "
Diets The Low Countries comprise the coastal Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta region in Western Europe, whose definition usually includes the modern countries of Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Both Belgium and the Netherlands derived their ...
", i.e. the "people's language". Urban T. Holmes has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western
Austrasia Austrasia was a territory which formed the north-eastern section of the Merovingian Kingdom of the Franks during the 6th to 8th centuries. It was centred on the Meuse, Middle Rhine and the Moselle rivers, and was the original territory of the ...
and
Neustria Neustria was the western part of the Kingdom of the Franks. Neustria included the land between the Loire and the Silva Carbonaria, approximately the north of present-day France, with Paris, Orléans, Tours, Soissons as its main cities. It late ...
as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century.


German Franconia

The Franks also expanded their rule southeast into parts of Germany. Their language had some influence on local dialects, especially for terms relating to warfare. However, since the language of both the administration and the Church was Latin, this unification did not lead to the development of a supra-regional variety of Franconian nor a standardized German language. At the same time that the Franks were expanding southeast into what is now southern Germany, there were linguistic changes taking place in the region. The
High German consonant shift In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development ( sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probabl ...
(or
second Germanic consonant shift In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development (sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probably ...
) was a phonological development (
sound change A sound change, in historical linguistics, is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic chan ...
) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases, probably beginning between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and was almost complete before the earliest written records in the High German language were made in the 9th century. The resulting language,
Old High German Old High German (OHG; german: Althochdeutsch (Ahd.)) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 750 to 1050. There is no standardised or supra-regional form of German at this period, and Old Hig ...
, can be neatly contrasted with
Low Franconian Low Franconian, Low Frankish, NetherlandicSarah Grey Thomason, Terrence Kaufman: ''Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics'', University of California Press, 1991, p. 321. (Calling it "Low Frankish (or Netherlandish)".)Scott Shay ...
, which for the most part did not experience the shift.


Franconian languages

The set of dialects of the Franks who continued to live in their original territory in Germany eventually developed in three different ways and eventually formed three modern branches of
Franconian languages Franconian or Frankish is a collective term traditionally used by linguists to refer to many West Germanic languages, some of which are spoken in what formed the historical core area of Francia during the Early Middle Ages. Linguistically, there ...
. * The dialects spoken by the Salian Franks in the Low Countries (
Old Dutch In linguistics, Old Dutch (Dutch: Oudnederlands) or Old Low Franconian (Dutch: Oudnederfrankisch) is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages, from aro ...
, also referred to as Old West Low Franconian) developed into the
Dutch language Dutch ( ) is a West Germanic language spoken by about 25 million people as a first language and 5 million as a second language. It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after its close relatives German and English. '' Afrikaans'' ...
, which itself has a number of distinct dialects.
Afrikaans Afrikaans (, ) is a West Germanic language that evolved in the Dutch Cape Colony from the Dutch vernacular of Holland proper (i.e., the Hollandic dialect) used by Dutch, French, and German settlers and their enslaved people. Afrikaans gr ...
developed from early Modern Dutch's
Hollandic dialect Hollandic or Hollandish ( ) is the most widely spoken dialect of the Dutch language. Hollandic is among the Central Dutch dialects. Other important language varieties of spoken Low Franconian languages are Brabantian, Flemish ( East Flemish, ...
spoken in the
Cape Colony The Cape Colony ( nl, Kaapkolonie), also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British colony in present-day South Africa named after the Cape of Good Hope, which existed from 1795 to 1802, and again from 1806 to 1910, when it united with ...
. * The Old East Low Franconian dialects are represented today in
Limburgish Limburgish ( li, Limburgs or ; nl, Limburgs ; german: Limburgisch ; french: Limbourgeois ), also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic, is a West Germanic language spoken in the Dutch and Belgian provinces of Limburg and in the neig ...
. Old Limburgish continued to develop under heavy
Low Rhenish Meuse-Rhenish (German: ''Rheinmaasländisch'', Dutch: ''Maas-Rijnlands'', and French: ''francique rhéno-mosan'') is the modern term for literature written in the Middle Ages in the greater Meuse-Rhine area, in a literary language that is eff ...
and Dutch influence which gradually made it more mutually intelligible with neighboring varieties. Since the incorporation of Limburg into the Dutch state in the late 16th century, Limburgish has experienced heavy influence from Dutch, to the point where the two are today
mutually intelligible In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between languages or dialects in which speakers of different but related varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort. It is sometimes used as a ...
to a significant degree. Limburgish itself has a number of dialects. * It is speculated that the dialects originally spoken by the
Ripuarian Franks Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks (Latin: ''Ripuarii'' or ''Ribuarii'') were one of the two main groupings of early Frankish people, and specifically it was the name eventually applied to the tribes who settled in the old Roman territory of the Ubii, ...
in Germany possibly developed into, or were subsumed under, the German dialects called the
Central Franconian dialects Central Franconian (german: mittelfränkische Dialekte, mittelfränkische Mundarten, mittelfränkische Mundart, Mittelfränkisch) refers to the following continuum of West Central German dialects: * Ripuarian (spoken in the German state of Nort ...
( Ripuarian Franconian,
Moselle Franconian __NOTOC__ Moselle Franconian (german: Moselfränkisch, lb, Muselfränkesch) is a West Central German language, part of the Central Franconian languages area, that includes Luxembourgish. It is spoken in the southern Rhineland and along the ...
and
Rhenish Franconian __NOTOC__ Rhenish Franconian or Rhine Franconian (german: Rheinfränkisch ) is a dialect chain of West Central German. It comprises the varieties of German spoken across the western regions of the states of Saarland, Rhineland-Palatinate, nor ...
). These languages and dialects were later affected by serious language changes (such as the
High German consonant shift In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development ( sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probabl ...
), which resulted in the emergence of dialects that are now considered German dialects. Today, the Central Franconian dialects are spoken in the core territory of the Ripuarian Franks. Although there may not be definite proof to say that the dialects of the Ripuarian Franks (about which very little is known) developed into the
Central Franconian dialects Central Franconian (german: mittelfränkische Dialekte, mittelfränkische Mundarten, mittelfränkische Mundart, Mittelfränkisch) refers to the following continuum of West Central German dialects: * Ripuarian (spoken in the German state of Nort ...
, there are—apart from mere probability—some pieces of evidence, most importantly the development ''-hs'' → ''ss'' and the loss of ''n'' before spirants, which is found throughout Central Franconian but nowhere else in High German. Compare Luxembourgish ''Uess'' ("ox"), Dutch ''os'', German ''Ochse''; and (dated) Luxembourgish ''Gaus'' ("goose"), Old Dutch ''gās'', German ''Gans''. The language spoken by
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first E ...
was probably the dialect that later developed into the Ripuarian Franconian dialect. The Frankish Empire later extended throughout neighbouring France and Germany. The language of the Franks had some influence on the local languages (especially in France), but did not develop into the standard language or
lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
. The Franks conquered adjoining territories of Germany (including the territory of the
Allemanni The Alemanni or Alamanni, were a confederation of Germanic tribes * * * on the Upper Rhine River. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Caracalla of 213, the Alemanni captured the in 260, and later expanded into pres ...
). The Frankish legacy survives in these areas, for example, in the names of the city of
Frankfurt Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , " Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located on it ...
and the area of
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper ...
. The Franks brought their language with them from their original territory and, as in France, it must have had an effect on the local dialects and languages. However, it is relatively difficult for linguists today to determine what features of these dialects are due to Frankish influence, because the latter was in large part obscured, or even overwhelmed, by later developments.


Influence on Old French and Middle English

Most French words of Germanic origin came from Frankish, often replacing the
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
word which would have been used. It is estimated that modern French took approximately 1000 stem words from Old Franconian. Many of these words were concerned with agriculture (e.g. french: jardin "garden"), war (e.g. french: guerre "war") or social organization (e.g. french: baron "baron"). Old Franconian has introduced the modern French word for the nation,
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
(
Francia Francia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks ( la, Regnum Francorum), Frankish Kingdom, Frankland or Frankish Empire ( la, Imperium Francorum), was the largest post-Roman barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Franks du ...
), meaning "land of the Franks". According to one hypothesis, the name for the Paris region,
Île-de-France The Île-de-France (, ; literally "Isle of France") is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France. Centred on the capital Paris, it is located in the north-central part of the country and often called the ''Région parisienne'' (; en, Pa ...
was also given by the Franks. The influence of Franconian on French is decisive for the birth of the early Langue d'oïl compared to the other
Romance languages The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language ...
, that appeared later such as Langue d'oc,
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania ** Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditiona ...
, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc., because its influence was greater than the respective influence of
Visigothic The Visigoths (; la, Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in late antiquity, or what is ...
and Lombardic (both
Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa. The most widely spoken Germanic language, ...
) on the ''langue d'oc'', the Romance languages of Iberia, and Italian. Not all of these loanwords have been retained in modern French. French has also passed on words of Franconian origin to other Romance languages, and to English. Old Franconian has also left many etyma in the different Northern
Langues d'oïl The ''langues d'oïl'' (; ) are a dialect continuum that includes standard French and its closest autochthonous relatives historically spoken in the northern half of France, southern Belgium, and the Channel Islands. These belong to the larger ...
s such as Picard,
Champenois Champenois (''lou champaignat'') is a Romance language of the ''langues d'oïl'' language family spoken by a minority of people in Champagne and Île-de-France provinces in France, as well as in a handful of towns in southern Belgium (chiefly ...
, Bas-
Lorrain Lorrain may refer to: * Claude Lorrain (1600–82), a 17th-century French artist of the baroque style * Lorrain language, a Romance dialect spoken in Lorraine region in France and Gaume region in Belgium See also * Lorain (disambiguation) Lorai ...
and Walloon, more than in Common French, and not always the same ones. See below a non-exhaustive list of French words of Frankish origin. An asterisk prefixing a term indicates a reconstructed form of the Frankish word. Most Franconian words with the phoneme ''w'' changed it to ''gu'' when entering Old French and other
Romance languages The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language ...
; however, the northern langue d'oïl dialects such as Picard, Northern Norman, Walloon, Burgundian, Champenois and Bas-Lorrain retained the or turned it into Perhaps the best known example is the Franconian *''werra'' ("war" < Old Northern French ''werre'', compare Old High German ''werre'' "quarrel"), which entered modern French as ''guerre'' and ''guerra'' in Italian, Occitan,
Catalan Catalan may refer to: Catalonia From, or related to Catalonia: * Catalan language, a Romance language * Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia Places * 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...
, Spanish and Portuguese. Other examples include "gant" ("gauntlet", from *''want'') and "garder" ("to guard", from *''wardōn''). Franconian words starting with ''s'' before another consonant developed it into ''es''- (e.g. Franconian ''skirm'' and Old French ''escremie'' > Old Italian ''scrimia'' > Modern French ''escrime''). } "rude" , L ''līberāre'' , - , ''alêne'' "awl" ( Sp ''alesna'', It ''lesina'') , *''alisna'' , MDu ''elsene, else'', Du ''els'' , L ''sūbula'' , - , ''alise'' "whitebeam berry" ( OFr ''alis, alie'' "whitebeam") , *''alísō'' "alder" , MDu ''elze'', Du ''els'' "alder" (vs. G ''Erle'' "alder"); Du ''elsbes'' "whitebeam", G ''Else'' "id." , non-native to the Mediterranean , - , ''baron'' , *''baro'' "freeman", "bare of duties" , MDu ''baren'' "to give birth", Du ''bar'' "gravely", "bare", OHG ''baro'' "freeman", OE ''beorn'' "noble" , Germanic cultural import
Late, Vulgar, and Medieval Latin ''*baro'' , - , ''bâtard'' "bastard" ( FrProv ''bâsco'') , *''bāst'' "marriage" , MDu ''bast'' "lust, heat,
reproductive season Seasonal breeders are animal species that successfully mate only during certain times of the year. These times of year allow for the optimization of survival of young due to factors such as ambient temperature, food and water availability, and cha ...
", WFris ''boaste, boask'' "marriage" , L ''nothus'' , - , ''bâtir'' "to build" (OFr ''bastir'' "to baste, tie together")
''bâtiment'' "building"
''bastille'' "fortress"
''bastion'' "fortress" , *''bastian'' "to bind with bast string" , MDu ''besten'' "to sew up, to connect", OHG ''bestan'' "to mend, patch", G ''basteln'' "to tinker"; MDu ''best'' "liaison" (Du gemene''best'' "commonwealth") , L ''construere'' (It ''costruire'') , - , ''bêche'' "spade" , *becca/bicca "pickaxe/spade" , , L ''becca'' , - , ''bière'' "beer" , *''bera'' , Du ''bier'' , L ''cervisia'' (Celtic) , - , ''blanc, blanche'' "white" , *''blank'' , Du ''blinken'' "to shine", ''blank'' "white, shining" , L ''albus'' , - , ''bleu'' "blue" (OFr ''blou, bleve'') , *''blao'' , MDu ''blā, blau, blaeuw'', Du ''blauw'' , L ''caeruleus'' "light blue", ''lividus'' "dark blue" , - , ''bois'' "wood, forest" , *''busk'' "bush, underbrush" , MDu ''bosch, busch'', Du ''bos'' "forest", "bush" , L ''silva'' "forest" (OFr ''selve''), L ''lignum'' "wood" (OFr ''lein'') , - , ''bourg'' "town/city" , *''burg'' or *''burc'' "fortified settlement" , ODu ''burg'', MDu ''burcht'' Got. ''baurg'' OHG ''burg'' OE ''burh'', OLG ''burg'', ON ''borg'' , L ''urbs'' "fortified city" , - , ''broder'' "to embroider" (OFr ''brosder, broisder'') , *''brosdōn'', blend of *''borst'' "bristle" and *''brordōn'' "to embroider" , G ''Borste'' "boar bristle", Du ''borstel'' "bristle"; OS ''brordōn'' "to embroider, decorate", ''brord'' "needle" , L ''pingere'' "to paint; embroider" (Fr ''peindre'' "to paint") , - , ''broyer'' "to grind, crush" (OFr ''brier'') , *''brekan'' "to break" , Du ''breken'' "to break", , LL ''tritāre'' ( Occ ''trissar'' "to grind", but Fr ''trier'' "to sort"), LL ''pistāre'' (It ''pestare'' "to pound, crush", OFr ''pester''), L ''machīnare'' ( Dalm ''maknur'' "to grind", Rom ''măşina'', It ''maşinare'') , - , ''brun'' "brown" , *''brūn'' , MDu ''brun'' and Du ''bruin'' "brown" , , - , ''choquer'' "to shock" , *''skukjan'' , Du ''schokken'' "to shock, to shake" , , - , ''choisir'' "to choose" , *''kiosan'' , MDu ''kiesen'', Du ''kiezen'', ''keuze'' , L ''eligēre'' (Fr ''élire'' "to elect"), VL ''exeligēre'' (cf. It ''scegliere''), ''excolligere'' (
Cat The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...
''escollir'', Sp ''escoger'', Pg ''escolher'') , - , ''chouette'' "barn owl" (OFr ''çuete'', dim. of ''choë, choue'' "jackdaw") , *''kōwa, kāwa'' "chough, jackdaw" , MDu ''couwe'' "rook", Du ''kauw, kaauw'' "chough" , not distinguished in Latin: L ''būbō'' "owl", ''ōtus'' "eared owl", ''ulula'' "screech owl", ''ulucus'' likewise "screech owl" (cf. Sp ''loco'' "crazy"), ''noctua'' "night owl" , - , ''crampe'' "cramp" , *krampa , MDu ''crampe,'' G ''Krampf,'' ModSc ''cramp,'' ME ''cramp'' , MF crampe, Sp ''calambre,'' NF ''crampe'' , - , ''cresson'' "watercress" , *''kresso'' , MDu ''kersse, korsse'', Du ''kers'', dial. ''kors'' , L ''nasturtium'', LL ''berula'' (but Fr ''berle'' "water parsnip") , - , ''danser'' "to dance" (OFr ''dancier'') , *''dansōn'' , OHG ''dansōn'' "to drag along, trail"; further to MDu ''densen, deinsen'' "to shrink back", Du ''deinzen'' "to stir; move away, back up", OHG ''dinsan'' "to pull, stretch" , LL ''ballare'' (OFr ''baller'', It ''ballare'', Pg ''bailar'') , - , ''début'' "begin" , *''but'' "stump, log" , ON ''bútr'' "log, stump, butt", OE ''butt'' "tree stump" , MF ''desbuter'' "move, begin", OF ''but'' "aim, goal, target" or ''butte'' "mound, knoll, target" , - , ''déchirer'' "to rip, tear" (OFr ''escirer'') , *''skerian'' "to cut, shear" , MDu ''scēren'', Du ''scheren'' "to shave, shear", ''scheuren'' "to tear" , VL ''extractiāre'' (Prov ''estraçar'', It ''stracciare''), VL ''exquartiare'' "to rip into fours" (It ''squarciare'', but Fr ''écarter'' "to move apart, distance"), ''exquintiare'' "to rip into five" (Cat/Occ ''esquinçar'') , - , ''dérober'' "to steal, reave" (OFr ''rober'', Sp ''robar'') , *''rōbon'' "to steal" , MDu ''rōven'', Du ''roven'' "to rob" , VL ''furicare'' "to steal" (It ''frugare'') , - , ''écang'' "swingle-dag, tool for beating fibrous stems" , *''swank'' "bat, rod" , MDu ''swanc'' "wand, rod", Du (dial. Holland) ''zwang'' "rod" , L ''pistillum'' (Fr dial. ''pesselle'' "swingle-dag") , - , ''écran'' "screen" (OFr ''escran'') , *''skrank'' , MDu ''schrank'' "chassis"; G ''Schrank'' "cupboard", ''Schranke'' "fence" , L ''obex'' , - , ''écrevisse'' "crayfish" (OFr ''crevice'') , *''krebit'' , Du ''kreeft'' "crayfish, lobster" , L ''cammārus'' "crayfish" (cf. Occ ''chambre'', It ''gambero'', Pg ''camarão'') , - , ''éperon'' "spur" (OFr ''esporon'') , *''sporo'' , MDu ''spōre'', Du ''spoor'' , L ''calcar'' , - , ''épier'' "to watch"
Old French ''espie'' "male spy"
, Modern French ''espion'' is from Italian , *''spehōn'' "to spy" , Du ''spieden'', ''bespieden'' "to spy", HG ''spähen'' "to peer, to peek, to scout", , , - , ''escrime'' "fencing" < Old Italian ''scrimia'' < OFr ''escremie'' from ''escremir'' "fight" , *''skirm'' "to protect" , Du ''schermen'' "to fence", ''scherm'' "(protective) screen", ''bescherming'' "protection", ''afscherming'' "shielding" , , - , ''étrier'' "stirrup" (OFr ''estrieu, estrief'') , *''stīgarēp'', from ''stīgan'' "to go up, to mount" and ''rēp'' "band" , MDu ''steegereep'', Du ''stijgreep'', ''stijgen'' "to rise", ''steigeren'' , LL ''stapia'' (later ML ''stapēs''), ML ''saltatorium'' (cf. MFr ''saultoir'') , - , ''flèche'' "arrow" , *''fliukka'' , Du ''vliek'' "arrow feather", MDu ''vliecke'', OS ''fliuca'' ( MLG ''fliecke'' "long arrow") , L ''sagitta'' (OFr ''saete'', It ''saetta'', Pg ''seta'') , - , ''frais'' "fresh" (OFr ''freis'', ''fresche'') , *''friska'' "fresh" , Du ''vers'' "fresh", ''fris'' "cold", German '' frisch'' , , - , ''franc'' "free, exempt; straightforward, without hassle" (LL ''francus'' "freeborn, freedman")
''France'' "France" (OFr ''Francia'')
''franchement'' "frankly" , *''frank'' "freeborn; unsubjugated, answering to no one", nasalized variant of *''frāki'' "rash, untamed, impudent" , MDu ''vrec'' "insolent", Du ''frank'' "unforced, sincere, frank", ''vrank'' "carefree, brazen", Du ''Frankrijk'' "France", Du ''vrek'' "miser", OHG ''franko'' "free man" , L ''ingenuus'' "freeborn"
L ''Gallia'' , - , ''frapper'' "to hit, strike" (OFr ''fraper'') , *''hrapan'' "to jerk, snatch" , Du ''rapen'' "gather up, collect", G ''raffen'' "to grab" , L ''ferire'' (OFr ''ferir'') , - , ''frelon'' "hornet" (OFr ''furlone'', ML ''fursleone'') , *''hurslo'' , MDu ''horsel'', Du ''horzel'' , L ''crābrō'' (cf. It ''calabrone'') , - , ''freux'' "rook" (OFr ''frox, fru'') , *''hrōk'' , MDu ''roec'', Du ''roek'' , not distinguished in Latin , - , ''galoper'' "to gallop" , *''wala hlaupan'' "to run well" , Du ''wel'' "good, well" + ''lopen'' "to run" , , - , ''garder'' "to guard" , *''wardōn'' , MDu ''waerden'' "to defend", OS ''wardōn'' , L ''cavere'', ''servare'' , - , ''gant'' "gauntlet" , *''want'' , Du ''want'' "glove" , , - , ''givre'' "frost (substance)" , *''gibara'' "drool, slobber" , EFris ''gever'', LG ''Geiber'', G ''Geifer'' "drool, slobber" , L ''gelū'' (cf. Fr ''gel'' "frost (event); freezing") , - , ''glisser'' "to slip" (OFr ''glier'') , *''glīdan'' "to glide" , MDu ''glīden'', Du ''glijden'' "to glide"; Du ''glis'' "skid"; G ''gleiten'', ''Gleis'' "track" , ML ''planare'' , - , ''grappe'' "bunch (of grapes)" (OFr ''crape, grape'' "hook, grape stalk") , *''krāppa'' "hook" , MDu ''crappe'' "hook", Du (dial. Holland) ''krap'' "krank", G ''Krapfe'' "hook", (dial. Franconian) ''Krape'' "torture clamp, vice" , L ''racemus'' (Prov ''rasim'' "bunch", Cat ''raïm'', Sp ''racimo'', but Fr ''raisin'' "grape") , - , ''gris'' "grey" , *''grîs'' "grey" , Du ''grijs'' "grey" , L ''cinereus'' "ash-coloured, grey" , - , ''guenchir'' "to turn aside, avoid" , *''wenkjan'' , Du ''wenken'' "to beckon", OS ''wenkian'' "to defect, become unfaithful", OHG ''wenchen'' "to bend, buckle, warp" , , - , ''guérir'' "to heal, cure" (OFr ''garir'' "to defend")
''guérison'' "healing" (OFr ''garrison'' "healing") , *''warjan'' "to protect, defend" , MDu ''weeren'', Du ''weren'' "to protect, defend", Du be''waren'' "to keep, preserve" , L ''sānāre'' (Sard ''sanare'', Sp/Pg ''sanar'', OFr ''saner''), ''medicāre'' (Dalm ''medcuar'' "to heal") , - , ''guerre'' "war" , *''werra'' "war" , Du ''war'' or ''wirwar'' "tangle", ''verwarren'' "to confuse" , L ''bellum'' , - , ''guigne'' "heart cherry" (OFr ''guisne'') , *''wīksina'' , G ''Weichsel'' "sour cherry", (dial.
Rhine Franconian __NOTOC__ Rhenish Franconian or Rhine Franconian (german: Rheinfränkisch ) is a dialect chain of West Central German. It comprises the varieties of German spoken across the western regions of the states of Saarland, Rhineland-Palatinate, nor ...
) ''Waingsl'', (dial. East Franconian) ''Wassen, Wachsen'' , non-native to the Mediterranean , - , ''haïr'' "to hate" (OFr ''hadir'' "to hate")
''haine'' "hatred" (OFr ''haïne'' "hatred") , *''hatjan'' , Du ''haten'' "to hate", ''haat'' "hatred" , L '' ōdī'' "to hate", ''odium'' "hatred" , - , ''hanneton'' "cockchafer" , *''hāno'' "rooster" + ''-eto'' (diminutive suffix) with sense of "beetle, weevil" , Du ''haan'' "rooster", lelie''haantje'' "lily beetle", blad''haantje'' "leaf beetle", G ''Hahn'' "rooster", (dial. Rhine Franconian) ''Hahn'' "sloe bug, shield bug", Lilien''hähnchen'' "lily beetle" , LL ''bruchus'' "chafer" (cf. Fr dial. ''brgue, beùrgne, brégue''), ''cossus'' (cf. SwRom ''coss'', OFr ''cosson'' "weevil") , - , ''haubert'' "
hauberk A hauberk or byrnie is a shirt of mail. The term is usually used to describe a shirt reaching at least to mid-thigh and including sleeves. Haubergeon ("little hauberk") generally refers to the quilted undergarment used with a hauberk, but the term ...
" , *''halsberg'' "neck-cover" , Du ''hals'' "neck" + ''berg'' "cover" (cf Du ''herberg'' "hostel") , L ''lorica'' , - , ''héron'' "heron" , *''heigero'', variant of *''hraigro'' , MDu ''heiger'' "heron", Du ''reiger'' "heron" , L ''ardea'' , - , ''houx'' "holly" , *''hulis'' , MDu ''huls'', Du ''hulst'' , L ''aquifolium'' (Sp ''acebo''), later VL ''acrifolium'' (Occ ''grefuèlh, agreu'', Cat ''grèvol'', It ''agrifoglio'') , - , ''jardin'' "garden" (VL ''hortus gardinus'' "enclosed garden", Ofr ''jardin'', ''jart'') , *''gardo'' "garden" , Du ''gaard'' "garden", ''boomgaard'' "orchard"; OS ''gardo'' "garden" , L ''hortus'' , - , ''lécher'' "to lick" (OFr ''lechier'' "to live in debauchery") , *''leccōn'' "to lick" , MDu ''lecken'', Du ''likken'' "to lick" , L ''lingere'' (Sard ''línghere''), ''lambere'' (Sp ''lamer'', Pg ''lamber'') , - , ''maçon'' "bricklayer" (OFr ''masson, machun'') , *''mattio'' "mason" , Du ''metsen'' "to mason", ''metselaar'' "masoner"; OHG ''mezzo'' "stonemason", ''meizan'' "to beat, cut", G ''Metz, Steinmetz'' "mason" , VL ''murator'' (Occ ''murador'', Sard ''muradore'', It ''muratóre'') , - , ''maint'' "many" (OFr ''maint'', ''meint'' "many") , *''menigþa'' "many" , Du ''menig'' "many", ''menigte'' "group of people" , , - , ''marais'' "marsh, swamp" , *''marisk'' "marsh" , MDu ''marasch, meresch, maersc'', Du ''meers'' "wet grassland", (dial. Holland) ''mars'' , L ''paludem'' (Occ ''palun'', It ''palude'') , - , ''maréchal'' "marshal"
''maréchaussée'' "military police" , *''marh-skalk'' "horse-servant" , ODu ''marscalk'' "horse-servant" (''marchi'' "mare" + ''skalk'' "servant"); MDu ''marscalc'' "horse-servant, royal servant" (''mare'' "mare" + ''skalk'' "serf"); Du ''maarschalk'' "marshal" (''merrie'' "mare" + ''schalk'' "comic", ''schalks'' "teasingly") , , - , ''nord'' "north" , *''Nortgouue'' (790–793 A.D.) "north" + "frankish district" (Du ''gouw'', Deu ''Gau'', Fri/LSax ''Go'') , Du ''noord'' or ''noorden'' "north", Du ''Henegouwen'' (province of Hainaut) , L ''septemtrio(nes) / septentrio(nes)'' "north, north wind, northern regions, (pl.) seven stars near the north pole", ''boreas'' "north wind, north", ''aquilo'' "stormy wind, north wind, north", ''aquilonium'' "northerly regions, north" , - , ''osier'' "osier (basket willow); withy" (OFr ''osière'', ML ''auseria'') , *''halster'' , MDu ''halster'', LG dial. ''Halster, Hilster'' "bay willow" , L ''vīmen'' "withy" (It ''vimine'' "withy", Sp ''mimbre, vimbre'' "osier", Pg ''vimeiro'', Cat ''vímet'' "withy"), ''vinculum'' (It ''vinco'' "osier", dial. ''vinchio'', Friul ''venc'') , - , ''patte'' "paw" , *''pata'' "foot sole" , Du ''poot'' "paw", Du ''pets'' "strike"; LG ''Pad'' "sole of the foot"; further to G ''Patsche'' "instrument for striking the hand", ''Patsch''fuss "web foot", ''patschen'' "to dabble", (dial. Bavarian) ''patzen'' "to blot, pat, stain" , LL ''branca'' "paw" (Sard ''brànca'', It ''brince'', Rom ''brîncă'', Prov ''branca'', Romansh ''franka'', but Fr ''branche'' "treelimb"), see also Deu ''Pranke'' , - , ''poche'' "
pocket A pocket is a bag- or envelope-like receptacle either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing to hold small items. Pockets are also attached to luggage, backpacks, and similar items. In older usage, a pocket was a separate small bag ...
" , *''poka'' " pouch" , MDu ''poke'', G dial. ''Pfoch'' "pouch, change purse" , L ''bulga'' " leather bag" (Fr ''bouge'' "bulge"), LL ''bursa'' " coin purse" (Fr ''bourse'' " money pouch, purse", It ''bórsa'', Sp/Pg ''bolsa'') , - , ''riche'' " rich" , *''riki'' "rich" , MDu ''rike'', Du ''rijk'' "kingdom", "rich" , L '' dives'' , - , ''sale'' " dirty" , *''salo'' " pale, sallow" , MDu ''salu, saluwe'' "discolored, dirty", Du (old) ''zaluw'' "tawny" , L ''succidus'' (cf. It ''sudicio'', Sp ''sucio'', Pg ''sujo'',
Ladin Ladin may refer to: *Ladin language, a language in northern Italy, often classified as a Rhaeto-Romance language *Ladin people, the inhabitants of the Dolomite Alps region of northern Italy See also *Laden (disambiguation) *Ladino (disambiguati ...
''scich'', Friul ''soç'') , - , ''salle'' "room" , *''sala'' "hall, room" , ODu ''zele'' "house made with sawn beams", Many place names: "Melsele", "Broeksele" (Brussels) etc. , , - , ''saule'' "
willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
" , *''salha'' "sallow, pussy willow" , OHG ''salaha'', G ''Sal''weide "pussy willow", OE ''sealh'' , L ''salix'' "willow" (OFr ''sauz, sausse'') , - , ''saisir'' "to
seize Seize may refer to: *Seisin, legal possession *Seizing, a class of knots used to semi-permanently bind together two ropes *Seize (band), a British electronic band *The jamming of machine parts against each other, usually due to insufficient lubric ...
, snatch; bring suit, vest a court" (ML ''sacīre'' "to lay claim to, appropriate") , *''sakan'' "to take legal action"Onions, ''op. cit.'', s.v. "seize", 807. , Du ''zeiken'' "to nag, to quarrel", ''zaak'' "court case", OS ''sakan'' "to accuse", OHG ''sahhan'' "to strive,
quarrel Quarrel may refer to: * A heated disagreement * Crossbow bolt, a crossbow's projectile also known as a quarrel * Quarrel (James Bond), a ''James Bond'' character ** Quarrel Jr., his son * ''Quarrel'' (video game) * ''The Quarrel ''The Qua ...
, rebuke", OE ''sacan'' "to quarrel, claim by law, accuse"; , VL ''aderigere'' (OFr ''aerdre'' "to seize") , - , ''standard'' "standard" (OFr ''estandart'' "standard") , *''standhard'' "stand hard, stand firm" , Du ''staan'' (to stand) + ''hard'' "hard" , , - , ''tamis'' "
sieve A sieve, fine mesh strainer, or sift, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or for controlling the particle size distribution of a sample, using a screen such as a woven mesh or net or perforated sheet materia ...
" (It ''tamigio'') , *''tamisa'' , MDu ''temse, teemse'', obs. Du ''teems'' " sifter" , L ''crībrum'' (Fr ''crible'' "
riddle A riddle is a statement, question or phrase having a double or veiled meaning, put forth as a puzzle to be solved. Riddles are of two types: ''enigmas'', which are problems generally expressed in metaphorical or allegorical language that requ ...
, sift") , - , ''tomber'' "to fall" (OFr ''tumer'' "to
somersault A somersault (also ''flip'', ''heli'', and in gymnastics ''salto'') is an acrobatic exercise in which a person's body rotates 360° around a horizontal axis with the feet passing over the head. A somersault can be performed forwards, backwards ...
") , *''tūmōn'' "to
tumble Tumble or tumbling may refer to: Arts and media * ''Tumble'' (album), a 1989 album by Biota * ''Tumble'' (TV series), a British TV series * ''Tumble'' (video game), a 2010 Sony Interactive Entertainment video game * "Tumble", a song by Meghan ...
" , Du ''tuimelen'' "to tumble", OS/OHG ''tūmōn'' "to tumble", , L ''cadere'' (archaic Fr ''choir'', Fr ''chute'' (a fall) ) , - , ''trêve'' "truce" , *''treuwa'' "loyalty, agreement" , Du ''trouw'' "faithfulness, loyalty" , L ''pausa'' (Fr ''pause'') , - , ''troène'' "privet" (dialectal ''truèle'', ML ''trūlla'') , *''trugil'' "hard wood; small trough" , OHG ''trugilboum, harttrugil'' "
dogwood ''Cornus'' is a genus of about 30–60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae, commonly known as dogwoods, which can generally be distinguished by their blossoms, berries, and distinctive bark. Most are deciduous trees or ...
; privet", G ''Hartriegel'' "dogwood", dialectally "privet", (dial. Eastern) ''Trögel'', archaic (dial. Swabian) ''Trügel'' "small trough,
trunk Trunk may refer to: Biology * Trunk (anatomy), synonym for torso * Trunk (botany), a tree's central superstructure * Trunk of corpus callosum, in neuroanatomy * Elephant trunk, the proboscis of an elephant Computing * Trunk (software), in rev ...
, basin" , L ''ligustrum'' , - , ''tuyau'' "
pipe Pipe(s), PIPE(S) or piping may refer to: Objects * Pipe (fluid conveyance), a hollow cylinder following certain dimension rules ** Piping, the use of pipes in industry * Smoking pipe ** Tobacco pipe * Half-pipe and quarter pipe, semi-circular ...
,
hose A hose is a flexible hollow tube designed to carry fluids from one location to another. Hoses are also sometimes called '' pipes'' (the word ''pipe'' usually refers to a rigid tube, whereas a hose is usually a flexible one), or more generally ...
" (OFr ''tuiel, tuel'') , *''þūta'' , MDu ''tūte'' "
nipple The nipple is a raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast from which, in females, milk leaves the breast through the lactiferous ducts to feed an infant. The milk can flow through the nipple passively or it can be ejected by smooth ...
; pipe", Du ''tuit'' " spout,
nozzle A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (specially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, ...
", OE ''þēote'' "channel;
canal Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface f ...
" , L ''canna'' "
reed Reed or Reeds may refer to: Science, technology, biology, and medicine * Reed bird (disambiguation) * Reed pen, writing implement in use since ancient times * Reed (plant), one of several tall, grass-like wetland plants of the order Poales * ...
; pipe" (It/SwRom/FrProv ''cana'' "pipe")


Old French

Franconian speech habits are also responsible for the replacement of Latin ''cum'' ("with") with '' od'' ← ''apud'' "at", then with '' avuec'' ← ''apud hoc'' "at it" ≠ Italian, Spanish ''con'') in Old French (Modern French ''avec''), and for the preservation of Latin nominative ''homo'' "man" as an impersonal pronoun: cf. ''homme'' ← ''hominem'' "man (accusative)" and Old French ''hum, hom, om'' → modern ''on'', "
one 1 (one, unit, unity) is a number representing a single or the only entity. 1 is also a numerical digit and represents a single unit of counting or measurement. For example, a line segment of ''unit length'' is a line segment of length 1. I ...
" (compare Dutch ''man'' "man" and ''men'', "one").


Middle English

Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old Englis ...
also adopted many words with Franconian roots from Old French; e.g. ''random'' (via Old French ''randon'', Old French verb ''randir'', from ''*rant'' "a running"), ''standard'' (via Old French ''estandart'', from ''*standhard'' "stand firm"), ''scabbard'' (via Anglo-French *''escauberc'', from *''skar-berg''), ''grape'', ''stale'', ''
march March is the third month of the year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It is the second of seven months to have a length of 31 days. In the Northern Hemisphere, the meteorological beginning of spring occurs on the first day of March ...
'' (via Old French ''marche'', from *''marka'') among others.


See also

*
Franconian languages Franconian or Frankish is a collective term traditionally used by linguists to refer to many West Germanic languages, some of which are spoken in what formed the historical core area of Francia during the Early Middle Ages. Linguistically, there ...
* History of French * List of French words of Germanic origin * List of Portuguese words of Franconian origin * List of Spanish words of Franconian origin *
Low Franconian languages Low Franconian, Low Frankish, NetherlandicSarah Grey Thomason, Terrence Kaufman: ''Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics'', University of California Press, 1991, p. 321. (Calling it "Low Frankish (or Netherlandish)".)Scott Shay ...
*
Old High German Old High German (OHG; german: Althochdeutsch (Ahd.)) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 750 to 1050. There is no standardised or supra-regional form of German at this period, and Old Hig ...
* List of English Latinates of Germanic origin


Endnotes


External links



(a linguistic analysis of the Bergakker scabbard) {{Authority control Dutch language Extinct Germanic languages Frankish people Languages attested from the 5th century Languages extinct in the 9th century Franconian, Old West Germanic languages Languages with own distinct writing systems