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The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an
Anishinaabe The Anishinaabeg (adjectival: Anishinaabe) are a group of culturally related Indigenous peoples present in the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States. They include the Ojibwe (including Saulteaux and Oji-Cree), Odawa, Potawa ...
people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern
Midwestern United States The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of the United States. I ...
, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of the largest tribal populations among Native American peoples. In Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the
Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations. In Canada, over 350,000 people are Cree o ...
. They are one of the most numerous
Indigenous Peoples Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
north of the
Rio Grande The Rio Grande ( and ), known in Mexico as the Río Bravo del Norte or simply the Río Bravo, is one of the principal rivers (along with the Colorado River) in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The length of the Rio G ...
. The Ojibwe population is approximately 320,000 people, with 170,742 living in the United States , and approximately 160,000 living in Canada. In the United States, there are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 Saulteaux; and 8,770 Mississauga, organized in 125 bands. In Canada, they live from western
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirte ...
to eastern
British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, for ...
. The Ojibwe language is
Anishinaabemowin Ojibwe , also known as Ojibwa , Ojibway, Otchipwe,R. R. Bishop Baraga, 1878''A Theoretical and Practical Grammar of the Otchipwe Language''/ref> Ojibwemowin, or Anishinaabemowin, is an Indigenous languages of the Americas, indigenous language o ...
, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires (which also include the
Odawa The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa ), said to mean "traders", are an Indigenous American ethnic group who primarily inhabit land in the Eastern Woodlands region, commonly known as the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. They h ...
and
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
) and of the larger Anishinaabeg, which also include Algonquin, Nipissing, and Oji-Cree people. Historically, through the
Saulteaux The Saulteaux (pronounced , or in imitation of the French pronunciation , also written Salteaux, Saulteau and other variants), otherwise known as the Plains Ojibwe, are a First Nations band government in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan ...
branch, they were a part of the Iron Confederacy with the Cree, Assiniboine, and
Metis Metis or Métis may refer to: Ethnic groups * Métis, recognized Indigenous communities in Canada and America whose distinct culture and language emerged after early intermarriage between First Nations peoples and early European settlers, primar ...
. The Ojibwe are known for their birchbark
canoe A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using a single-bladed paddle. In British English, the ter ...
s, birchbark scrolls, mining and trade in
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...
, as well as their cultivation of wild rice and
maple syrup Maple syrup is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple tr ...
. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. European powers, Canada, and the United States have colonized Ojibwe lands. The Ojibwe signed treaties with settler leaders to surrender land for settlement in exchange for compensation, land reserves and guarantees of traditional rights. Many European settlers moved into the Ojibwe ancestral lands.


Etymology

The
exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group ...
for this Anishinaabe group is ''Ojibwe'' (plural: ''Ojibweg''). This name is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa" or "Ojibway". The name "Chippewa" is an alternative anglicization. Although many variations exist in the literature, "Chippewa" is more common in the United States, and "Ojibway" predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U.S. since the late 20th century, more members have been using the generalized name ''Anishinaabe(-g)''. The meaning of the name ''Ojibwe'' is not known; the most common explanations for the name derivations are: * ''ojiibwabwe'' (/o/ + /jiibw/ + /abwe/), meaning "those who cook/roast until it puckers", referring to their fire-curing of
moccasin A moccasin is a shoe, made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole (made with leather that has not been "worked") and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp (additional pane ...
seams to make them waterproof. Some 19th century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies. * ''ozhibii'iwe'' (/o/ + /zhibii'/ + /iwe/), meaning "those who keep records f a Vision, referring to their form of pictorial writing, and pictographs used in Midewiwin sacred rites; or * ''ojiibwe'' (/o/ + /jiib/ + /we/), meaning "those who speak stiffly" or "those who stammer", an exonym or name given to them by the Cree, who described the Ojibwe language for its differences from their own. Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of
Lake Superior Lake Superior in central North America is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface areaThe Caspian Sea is the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater. and the third-largest by volume, holding 10% of the world's surface fresh wa ...
, which the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
colonists called Sault Ste. Marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as ''Saulteurs''. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west. Ojibwe who were originally located along the
Mississagi River The Mississagi River is a river in Algoma and Sudbury Districts, Ontario, Canada, that originates in Sudbury District and flows to Lake Huron at Blind River, Algoma District. Etymology The river's name comes from the Ojibwe ''misi-zaagi'' ...
and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the
Mississaugas The Mississauga are a subtribe of the Anishinaabe-speaking First Nations peoples located in southern Ontario, Canada. They are closely related to the Ojibwe. The name "Mississauga" comes from the Anishinaabe word ''Misi-zaagiing'', meaning " ho ...
.


Language

The Ojibwe language is known as ''Anishinaabemowin'' or ''Ojibwemowin'', and is still widely spoken, although the number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, most of the language's fluent speakers are elders. Since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Its sister languages include
Blackfoot The Blackfoot Confederacy, ''Niitsitapi'' or ''Siksikaitsitapi'' (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ, meaning "the people" or "Blackfoot language, Blackfoot-speaking real people"), is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up t ...
,
Cheyenne The Cheyenne ( ) are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains. Their Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enr ...
,
Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations. In Canada, over 350,000 people are Cree o ...
, Fox, Menominee,
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
, and
Shawnee The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands. In the 17th century they lived in Pennsylvania, and in the 18th century they were in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, with some bands in Kentucky a ...
among the northern Plains tribes. ''Anishinaabemowin'' is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; Central Algonquian is an area grouping, however, rather than a linguistic genetic one. ''Ojibwemowin'' is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after
Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest fe ...
, Cree, and
Inuktitut Inuktitut (; , syllabics ; from , "person" + , "like", "in the manner of"), also Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada. It is spoken in all areas north of the tree line, including parts of the provinces o ...
. Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the
Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River. There are five lakes ...
and the northern
Great Plains The Great Plains (french: Grandes Plaines), sometimes simply "the Plains", is a broad expanse of flatland in North America. It is located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, a ...
. The popularity of the epic poem ''
The Song of Hiawatha ''The Song of Hiawatha'' is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow which features Native American characters. The epic relates the fictional adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha and the tragedy of hi ...
'', written by
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 – March 24, 1882) was an American poet and educator. His original works include "Paul Revere's Ride", ''The Song of Hiawatha'', and '' Evangeline''. He was the first American to completely trans ...
in 1855, publicized the Ojibwe culture. The epic contains many
toponym Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of ''toponyms'' ( proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage and types. Toponym is the general term for a proper name of ...
s that originate from Ojibwe words.


History


Precontact and spiritual beliefs

According to Ojibwe
oral history Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about individuals, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people wh ...
and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwe originated from the mouth of the
Saint Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connecting ...
on the Atlantic coast of what is now
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirte ...
. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the Americas. The identification of the Ojibwe as a culture or people may have occurred in response to contact with Europeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with groups, and tried to identify those they encountered. According to Ojibwe oral history, seven great ''miigis'' (Cowrie shells) appeared to them in the ''Waabanakiing'' (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) to teach them the ''mide'' way of life. One of the ''miigis'' was too spiritually powerful and killed the people in the ''Waabanakiing'' when they were in its presence. The six others remained to teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six established ''doodem'' (clans) for people in the east, symbolized by animals. The five original Anishinaabe ''doodem'' were the ''Wawaazisii'' ( Bullhead), ''Baswenaazhi'' (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), ''Aan'aawenh'' ( Pintail Duck), ''Nooke'' (Tender, i.e.,
Bear Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the No ...
) and ''Moozoonsii'' (Little
Moose The moose (in North America) or elk (in Eurasia) (''Alces alces'') is a member of the New World deer subfamily and is the only species in the genus ''Alces''. It is the largest and heaviest extant species in the deer family. Most adult ma ...
). The six ''miigis'' then returned to the ocean as well. If the seventh had stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird ''doodem''. At a later time, one of these ''miigis'' appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move farther west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new pale-skinned settlers who would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with ''miigis'' shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from their "Allied Brothers" (i.e.,
Mi'kmaq The Mi'kmaq (also ''Mi'gmaq'', ''Lnu'', ''Miꞌkmaw'' or ''Miꞌgmaw''; ; ) are a First Nations people of the Northeastern Woodlands, indigenous to the areas of Canada's Atlantic Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec as well as the no ...
) and "Father" (i.e.,
Abenaki The Abenaki ( Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was pre ...
) of their safety to move inland, the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint Lawrence River to the
Ottawa River The Ottawa River (french: Rivière des Outaouais, Algonquin: ''Kichi-Sìbì/Kitchissippi'') is a river in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. It is named after the Algonquin word 'to trade', as it was the major trade route of Eastern ...
to
Lake Nipissing Lake Nipissing (; french: lac Nipissing, oj, Gichi-nibiinsing-zaaga’igan) is a lake in the Canadian province of Ontario. It has a surface area of , a mean elevation of above sea level, and is located between the Ottawa River and Georgian Bay ...
, and then to the Great Lakes. The first of the smaller Turtle Islands was ''Mooniyaa'', where ''Mooniyaang'' (present-day
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the second-most populous city in Canada and most populous city in the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1642 as '' Ville-Marie'', or "City of Mary", it is named after Mount Royal, the triple- ...
) developed. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the ''Wayaanag-gakaabikaa'' (Concave Waterfalls, i.e.,
Niagara Falls Niagara Falls () is a group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge, spanning the Canada–United States border, border between the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Ontario in Canada and the U.S. state, state ...
). At their "third stopping place", near the present-day city of
Detroit, Michigan Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at ...
, the Anishinaabeg divided into six groups, of which the Ojibwe was one. The first significant new Ojibwe culture-center was their "fourth stopping place" on ''Manidoo Minising'' ( Manitoulin Island). Their first new political-center was referred to as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at ''Baawiting'' (Sault Ste. Marie). Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwe divided into the "northern branch", following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the "southern branch", along its south shore. As the people continued to migrate westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group". The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island () located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day Duluth/
Superior Superior may refer to: *Superior (hierarchy), something which is higher in a hierarchical structure of any kind Places *Superior (proposed U.S. state), an unsuccessful proposal for the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to form a separate state *Lake ...
cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the ''miigis'' being to go to the "place where there is food (i.e., wild rice) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred to as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or ''Zhaagawaamikong'', French, '' Chequamegon'') on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present
La Pointe, Wisconsin La Pointe is an unincorporated community in the town of La Pointe, Ashland County, Wisconsin, United States. It is on the western shore of Madeline Island, the largest of the Apostle Islands. Downtown La Pointe is adjacent to the Madeline ...
. The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" migrated along the Rainy River, Red River of the North, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Thou ...
. Along their migration to the west, they came across many ''miigis'', or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.


Contact with Europeans

The first historical mention of the Ojibwe occurs in the French '' Jesuit Relation'' of 1640, a report by the missionary priests to their superiors in France. Through their friendship with the French traders ('' coureurs des bois'' and
voyageurs The voyageurs (; ) were 18th and 19th century French Canadians who engaged in the transporting of furs via canoe during the peak of the North American fur trade. The emblematic meaning of the term applies to places (New France, including th ...
), the Ojibwe gained guns, began to use European goods, and began to dominate their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Fox to their west and south. They drove the Sioux from the Upper
Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
region to the area of the present-day Dakotas, and forced the Fox down from northern
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. The latter allied with the Sauk for protection. By the end of the 18th century, the Ojibwe controlled nearly all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, including most of the Red River area. They also controlled the entire northern shores of lakes
Huron Huron may refer to: People * Wyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America * Wyandot language, spoken by them * Huron-Wendat Nation, a Huron-Wendat First Nation with a community in Wendake, Quebec * Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawato ...
and Superior on the Canadian side and extending westward to the Turtle Mountains of
North Dakota North Dakota () is a U.S. state in the Upper Midwest, named after the indigenous Dakota Sioux. North Dakota is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba to the north and by the U.S. states of Minnesota to the east, ...
. In the latter area, the French Canadians called them Ojibwe or ''Saulteaux''. The Ojibwe were part of a long-term alliance with the Anishinaabe
Odawa The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa ), said to mean "traders", are an Indigenous American ethnic group who primarily inhabit land in the Eastern Woodlands region, commonly known as the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. They h ...
and
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
peoples, called the Council of Three Fires. They fought against the
Iroquois Confederacy The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
, based mainly to the southeast of the Great Lakes in present-day New York, and the Sioux to the west. The Ojibwa stopped the Iroquois advance into their territory near Lake Superior in 1662. Then they formed an alliance with other tribes such as the
Huron Huron may refer to: People * Wyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America * Wyandot language, spoken by them * Huron-Wendat Nation, a Huron-Wendat First Nation with a community in Wendake, Quebec * Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawato ...
and the Odawa who had been displaced by the Iroquois invasion. Together they launched a massive counterattack against the Iroquois and drove them out of Michigan and southern Ontario until they were forced to flee back to their original homeland in upstate New York. At the same time the Iroquois were subjected to attacks by the French. This was the beginning of the end of the Iroquois Confederacy as they were put on the defensive. The Ojibwe expanded eastward, taking over the lands along the eastern shores of Lake Huron and
Georgian Bay Georgian Bay (french: Baie Georgienne) is a large bay of Lake Huron, in the Laurentia bioregion. It is located entirely within the borders of Ontario, Canada. The main body of the bay lies east of the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island. T ...
. In 1745, they adopted guns from the British in order to repel the
Dakota people The Dakota (pronounced , Dakota language: ''Dakȟóta/Dakhóta'') are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided ...
in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. In the 1680s the Ojibwa defeated the
Iroquois The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...
who dispersed their Huron allies and trading partners. This victory allowed them a "
golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the '' Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the G ...
" in which they ruled uncontested in southern Ontario. Often, treaties known as "peace and friendship treaties" were made to establish community bonds between the Ojibwe and the European settlers. These established the groundwork for cooperative resource-sharing between the Ojibwe and the settlers. The United States and Canada viewed later treaties offering land cessions as offering territorial advantages. The Ojibwe did not understand the land cession terms in the same way because of the cultural differences in understanding the uses of land. The governments of the U.S. and Canada considered land a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned and sold. The Ojibwe believed it was a fully shared resource, along with air, water and sunlight—despite having an understanding of "territory". At the time of the treaty councils, they could not conceive of separate land sales or exclusive ownership of land. Consequently, today, in both Canada and the U.S., legal arguments in treaty-rights and treaty interpretations often bring to light the differences in cultural understanding of treaty terms to come to legal understanding of the treaty obligations. In part because of its long trading alliance, the Ojibwe allied with the French against Great Britain and its colonists in the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...
(also called the
French and Indian War The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the st ...
). After losing the war in 1763, France was forced to cede its colonial claims to lands in Canada and east of the Mississippi River to Britain. After
Pontiac's War Pontiac's War (also known as Pontiac's Conspiracy or Pontiac's Rebellion) was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of Native Americans dissatisfied with British rule in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War (1754–17 ...
and adjusting to British colonial rule, the Ojibwe allied with British forces and against the United States in the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It be ...
. They had hoped that a British victory could protect them against United States settlers' encroachment on their territory. Following the war, the United States government tried to forcibly
remove Remove, removed or remover may refer to: * Needle remover * Polish remover * Staple remover * Remove (education) * The degree of cousinship, i.e. "once removed" or "twice removed" - see Cousin chart See also * Deletion (disambiguation) * Moving ...
all the Ojibwe to
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over t ...
, west of the Mississippi River. The Ojibwe resisted, and there were violent confrontations. In the Sandy Lake Tragedy, several hundred Ojibwe died because of the federal government's failure to deliver fall annuity payments.James A. Clifton, "Wisconsin Death March: Explaining the Extremes in Old Northwest Indian Removal"
in ''Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters'', 1987, 5:1–40, accessed 2 March 2010
The government attempted to do this in the Keweenaw Peninsula in the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan The Upper Peninsula of Michigan – also known as Upper Michigan or colloquially the U.P. – is the northern and more elevated of the two major landmasses that make up the U.S. state of Michigan; it is separated from the Lower Peninsula by ...
. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and the rise of popular opinion in the U.S. against Ojibwe removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to
Kansas Kansas () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its Capital city, capital is Topeka, Kansas, Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas, Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebras ...
as part of the Potawatomi removal. In British North America, the
Royal Proclamation of 1763 The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The Procla ...
following the Seven Years' War governed the cession of land by treaty or purchase . Subsequently, France ceded most of the land in
Upper Canada The Province of Upper Canada (french: link=no, province du Haut-Canada) was a Province, part of The Canadas, British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North Americ ...
to Great Britain. Even with the Jay Treaty signed between Great Britain and the United States following the
American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty. As it was still preoccupied by war with France, Great Britain ceded to the United States much of the lands in
Ohio Ohio () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Of the List of states and territories of the United States, fifty U.S. states, it is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 34th-l ...
,
Indiana Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th ...
, Michigan, parts of
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rock ...
and Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota to settle the boundary of their holdings in Canada. In 1807, the Ojibwe joined three other tribes, the Odawa, Potawatomi and Wyandot people, in signing the
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Mich ...
. The agreement, between the tribes and
William Hull William Hull (June 24, 1753 – November 29, 1825) was an American soldier and politician. He fought in the American Revolutionary War and was appointed as Governor of Michigan Territory (1805–13), gaining large land cessions from several Am ...
, representing the
Michigan Territory The Territory of Michigan was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from June 30, 1805, until January 26, 1837, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Michigan. Detroit ...
, gave the United States a portion of today's Southeastern Michigan and a section of Ohio near the
Maumee River The Maumee River (pronounced ) ( sjw, Hotaawathiipi; mia, Taawaawa siipiiwi) is a river running in the United States Midwest from northeastern Indiana into northwestern Ohio and Lake Erie. It is formed at the confluence of the St. Joseph and ...
. The tribes were able to retain small pockets of land in the territory. The
Battle of the Brule The Battle of the Brule was an October 1842 battle between the La Pointe Band of Ojibwe Indians and a war party of Lakota Indians. The battle took place along the Brule River (Bois Brule) in what is today northern Wisconsin and resulted in a de ...
was an October 1842 battle between the La Pointe Band of Ojibwe Indians and a war party of Dakota Indians. The battle took place along the Brule River (Bois Brûlé) in what is today northern Wisconsin and resulted in a decisive victory for the Ojibwe. In Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for continued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources after land sales. The government signed numbered treaties in northwestern Ontario,
Manitoba Manitoba ( ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population o ...
,
Saskatchewan Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...
, and
Alberta Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest T ...
.
British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, for ...
had not signed treaties until the late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times. The numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. The Ojibwe Nation set the agenda and negotiated the first numbered treaties before they would allow safe passage of many more British settlers to the prairies. Ojibwe communities have a strong history of political and social activism. Long before contact, they were closely aligned with Odawa and Potawatomi people in the Council of the Three Fires. From the 1870s to 1938, the Grand General Indian Council of Ontario attempted to reconcile multiple traditional models into one cohesive voice to exercise political influence over colonial legislation. In the West, 16 Plains Cree and Ojibwe bands formed the Allied Bands of Qu'Appelle in 1910 in order to redress concerns about the failure of the government to uphold Treaty 4's promises.


Culture

The Ojibwe have traditionally organized themselves into groups known as ''bands''. Most Ojibwe, except for the Great Plains bands, have historically lived a settled (as opposed to nomadic) lifestyle, relying on fishing and hunting to supplement the cultivation of numerous varieties of
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American English, North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous ...
and squash, and the harvesting of '' manoomin'' (wild rice) for food. Historically their typical dwelling has been the ''wiigiwaam'' ( wigwam), built either as a ''waginogaan'' (domed-lodge) or as a ''nasawa'ogaan'' (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark,
juniper Junipers are coniferous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Juniperus'' () of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on the taxonomy, between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from the Arc ...
bark and
willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
saplings. In the contemporary era, most of the people live in modern housing, but traditional structures are still used for special sites and events. They have a culturally-specific form of pictorial writing, used in the religious rites of the '' Midewiwin'' and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of petroforms,
petroglyphs A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions ...
, and pictographs has been common throughout the Ojibwe traditional territories. Petroforms and
medicine wheels To some indigenous peoples of North America, the medicine wheel is a metaphor for a variety of spiritual concepts. A medicine wheel may also be a stone monument that illustrates this metaphor. Historically, most medicine wheels follow the basic ...
have been used to teach important spiritual concepts, record astronomical events, and to use as a mnemonic device for certain stories and beliefs. The script is still in use, among traditional people as well as among youth on social media. Some ceremonies use the ''miigis'' shell ( cowry shell), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there is a vast, longstanding trade network across the continent. The use and trade of
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...
across the continent has also been proof of a large trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the Hopewell tradition. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads have also been traded over large distances precontact. During the summer months, the people attend ''jiingotamog'' for the spiritual and ''niimi'idimaa'' for a social gathering ( powwows) at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making
maple sugar Maple sugar is a traditional sweetener in Canada and the northeastern United States, prepared from the sap of the maple tree (" maple sap"). Sources Three species of maple trees in the genus '' Acer'' are predominantly used to produce mapl ...
. The Ojibwe bury their dead in burial mounds. Many erect a ''jiibegamig'' or a "spirit-house" over each mound. An historical burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's '' doodem'' (clan sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwe graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwe communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Several Ojibwe bands in the United States cooperate in the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-
Lake Michigan Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume () and the third-largest by surface area (), after Lake Superior and Lake Huron. To the east, its basin is conjoined with that o ...
areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwe tribal councils cooperate in the
1854 Treaty Authority The 1854 Treaty Authority is an intertribal, co-management agency committed to the implementation of off-reservation treaty rights on behalf of its two-member Ojibwa tribes. Based out of Duluth, Minnesota, 1854 Treaty Authority's policy is set b ...
, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Arrowhead Region. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the waters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the
Treaty 3 ''Treaty 3'' was an agreement entered into on October 3, 1873, by Chief Mikiseesis (Little Eagle) on behalf of the Ojibwe First Nations and Queen Victoria. The treaty involved a vast tract of Ojibwe territory, including large parts of what is ...
hunting and fishing rights related to the area around
Lake of the Woods Lake of the Woods (french: Lac des Bois, oj, Pikwedina Sagainan) is a lake occupying parts of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the U.S. state of Minnesota. Lake of the Woods is over long and wide, containing more than 14,5 ...
.


Cuisine

There is renewed interest in nutritious eating among the Ojibwe, who have been expanding community gardens in food deserts, and have started a mobile kitchen to teach their communities about nutritious food preparation. The traditional Native American diet was seasonally dependent on hunting, fishing and the foraging and farming of produce and grains. The modern diet has substituted some other types of food like frybread and "Indian tacos" in place of these traditionally prepared meals. The Native Americans loss of connection to their culture is part of the "quest to reconnect to their food traditions" sparking an interest in traditional ingredients like wild rice, that is the official state grain of Minnesota and was part of the pre-colonial diet of the Ojibwe. Other staple foods of the Ojibwe were fish, maple sugar, venison and corn. They grew beans, squash, corn and potatoes and foraged for blueberries, blackberries, choke cherries, raspberries, gooseberries and huckleberries. During the summer game animals like deer, beaver, moose, goose, duck, rabbits and bear were hunted. One traditional method of making granulated sugar known among the Anishinabe was to boil
maple syrup Maple syrup is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple tr ...
until reduced and pour into a trough, where the rapidly cooling syrup was quickly processed into maple sugar using wooden paddles.


Kinship and clan system

Traditionally, the Ojibwe had a
patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritan ...
system, in which children were considered born to the father's
clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, mea ...
. For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Ojibwe society unless adopted by an Ojibwe male. They were sometimes referred to as "white" because of their fathers, regardless if their mothers were Ojibwe, as they had no official place in the Ojibwe society. The people would shelter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Ojibwe fathers. Ojibwe understanding of kinship is complex and includes the immediate family as well as extended family. It is considered a modified
bifurcate merging Iroquois kinship (also known as bifurcate merging) is a kinship system named after the Haudenosaunee people, also known as the ''Iroquois'', whose kinship system was the first one described to use this particular type of system. Identified by ...
kinship system. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term with
parallel cousin Parallel is a geometric term of location which may refer to: Computing * Parallel algorithm * Parallel computing * Parallel metaheuristic * Parallel (software), a UNIX utility for running programs in parallel * Parallel Sysplex, a cluster of ...
s because they are all part of the same clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the person's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, ''ninooshenh'' is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—i.e., my parallel-aunt, but also "my parent's female cross-cousin". Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called ''aanikoobijigan''. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and balance among all living generations, as well as of all generations of the past and of the future. The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of ''doodemag'' (clans; singular: ''doodem'') named primarily for animals and birds
totem A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or '' doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system. While ''the ...
s (pronounced '' doodem''). The word in the Ojibwe language means "my fellow clansman." The five original totems were ''Wawaazisii'' (Bullhead), ''Baswenaazhi'' ("Echo-maker", i.e., Crane), ''Aan'aawenh'' (Pintail Duck), ''Nooke'' ("Tender", i.e., Bear) and ''Moozwaanowe'' ("Little" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest – so large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain responsibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse from a different clan. Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, or ''odoodemaan''. The band was often identified by the principal ''doodem''. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Ojibwe people is, "What is your 'doodem'?" ("''Aaniin gidoodem?''" or "''Awanen gidoodem?''") The response allows the parties to establish social conduct by identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to "''Aanii'' (pronounced "Ah-nee").


Spiritual beliefs

The Ojibwe have spiritual beliefs that have been passed down by
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and Culture, cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Traditio ...
under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a creation story and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwe because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonies. The
sweatlodge A sweat lodge is a low profile hut, typically dome-shaped or oblong, and made with natural materials. The structure is the ''lodge'', and the ceremony performed within the structure may be called by some cultures a purification ceremony or simply ...
is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions, when oral history is recounted. Teaching lodges are common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. The traditional ways, ideas, and teachings are preserved and practiced in such living ceremonies. The modern dreamcatcher, adopted by the Pan-Indian Movement and
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
groups, originated in the Ojibwe "spider web charm", a hoop with woven string or sinew meant to replicate a spider's web, used as a protective charm for infants. According to Ojibwe legend, the protective charms originate with the Spider Woman, known as ''Asibikaashi''; who takes care of the children and the people on the land and as the Ojibwe Nation spread to the corners of North America it became difficult for Asibikaashi to reach all the children, so the mothers and grandmothers wove webs for the children, which had an apotropaic purpose and were not explicitly connected with dreams.


Funeral practices


Traditional

In Ojibwe tradition, the main task after a death is to bury the body as soon as possible, the very next day or even on the day of death. This was important because it allowed the spirit of the dead to journey to its place of joy and happiness. The land of happiness where the dead reside is called ''Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining''.Allis, Ellary. “The Spirit of The Dead According To Ojibwe Beliefs.” ''SevenPonds'', Seven Ponds, 8 Dec. 2016, blog.sevenponds.com/cultural-perspectives/the-spirit-of-the-dead-according-to-ojibwe-beliefs.    This was a journey that took four days. If burial preparations could not be completed the day of the death, guests and medicine men were required to stay with the deceased and the family in order to help mourn, while also singing songs and dancing throughout the night. Once preparations were complete, the body would be placed in an inflexed position with their knees towards their chest. Over the course of the four days it takes the spirit to journey to its place of joy, it is customary to have food kept alongside the grave at all times. A fire is set when the sun sets and is kept going throughout the night. The food is to help feed the spirit over the course of the journey, while the smoke from the fire is a directional guide. Once the four day journey is over, a feast is held, which is led by the chief medicine man. At the feast, it is the chief medicine man's duty to give away certain belongings of the deceased. Those who were chosen to receive items from the deceased are required to trade in a new piece of clothing, all of which would be turned into a bundle. The bundle of new cloths and a dish is then given to the closest relative. The recipient of the bundle must then find individuals that he or she believes to be worthy, and pass on one of the new pieces of clothing.


Contemporary

According to Lee Staples, an Ojibwe spiritual leader from the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, present day practices follow the same spiritual beliefs and remain fairly similar. When an individual dies, a fire is lit in the home of the family, who are also expected to continuously maintain the fire for four days. Over the four days, food is also offered to the spirit. Added to food offerings, tobacco is also offered as it is considered one of four sacred medicines traditionally used by Ojibwe communities. On the last night of food offerings, a feast is also held by the relatives which ends with a final smoke of the offering tobacco or the tobacco being thrown in the fire. Although conventional caskets are mainly used in today's communities, birch bark fire matches are buried along with the body as a tool to help light fires to guide their journey to ''Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining''.


Ethnobotany

Plants used by the Ojibwe include '' Agrimonia gryposepala'', used for urinary problems, and ''
Pinus strobus ''Pinus strobus'', commonly called the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada west through the Great Lake ...
'', the resin of which was used to treat infections and
gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the gan ...
. The roots of '' Symphyotrichum novae-angliae'' are smoked in pipes to attract game. ''
Allium tricoccum ''Allium tricoccum'' (commonly known as ramp, ramps, ramson, wild leek, wood leek, or wild garlic) is a North American species of wild onion or garlic widespread across eastern Canada and the eastern United States. Many of the common English n ...
'' is eaten as part of Ojibwe cuisine. They also use a decoction as a quick-acting emetic. An infusion of the ''alba'' subspecies of ''
Silene latifolia ''Silene latifolia'' subsp. ''alba'' (formerly ''Melandrium album''), the white campion is a dioecious flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae, native to most of Europe, Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is a herbaceous annual, occasion ...
'' is used as
physic Physic may refer to: * The study or practice of medicine * A substance administered as medicine, or the medicinal plant from which it is extracted: ** ''Gillenia stipulata ''Gillenia stipulata'', or American ipecac, is an herbacious perennial ...
. The South Ojibwa use a decoction of the root '' Viola canadensis'' for pains near the bladder. The Ojibwa are documented to use the root of ''
Uvularia grandiflora ''Uvularia grandiflora'', the large-flowered bellwort or merrybells, is a species of flowering plant in the family Colchicaceae, native to eastern and central North America. Description Growing to tall by broad, it is a rhizomatous herbaceo ...
'' for pain in the
solar plexus The celiac plexus, also known as the solar plexus because of its radiating nerve fibers, is a complex network of nerves located in the abdomen, near where the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and renal arteries branch from the abdo ...
, which may refer to pleurisy. They take a compound decoction of the root of ''
Ribes glandulosum ''Ribes glandulosum'', the skunk currant, is a North American species of flowering plant in the currant family. It is widespread in Canada (all 10 provinces and all 3 territories) and is also found in parts of the United States (Alaska, the Grea ...
'' for back pain and for "female weakness". The Ojibwe eat the corms of '' Sagittaria cuneata'' for indigestion, and also as a food, eaten boiled fresh, dried or candied with maple sugar. Muskrat and beavers store them in large caches, which they have learned to recognize and appropriate. They take an infusion of the ''Antennaria howellii'' ssp. ''neodioica'' after childbirth to purge afterbirth and to heal. They use the roots of '' Solidago rigida'', using a decoction of root as an enema and take an infusion of the root for "stoppage of urine". They use ''
Abies balsamea ''Abies balsamea'' or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada (Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to W ...
''; melting the gum on warm stones and inhaling the fumes for headache.Densmore, Frances, 1928, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, SI-BAE Annual Report #44:273–379, page 338 They also use a decoction of the root as an herbal steam for rheumatic joints. They also combine the gum with bear grease and use it as an ointment for hair. They use the needle-like leaves in as part of ceremony involving the sweatbath, and use the gum for colds and inhale the leaf smoke for colds.Smith, Huron H., 1932, Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians, Bulletin of the Public Museum of Milwaukee 4:327–525, page 378 They use the plant as a cough medicine. The gum is used for sores and a compound containing leaves is used as wash. The liquid balsam from bark blisters is used for sore eyes. They boil the resin twice and add it to suet or fat to make a canoe pitch. The bark gum is taken for chest soreness from colds, applied to cuts and sores, and decoction of the bark is used to induce sweating. The bark gum is also taken for gonorrhea. A decoction (tea) of powdered, dried '' Onoclea sensibilis'' root is used to stimulate milk flow in female patients.


Gallery

Image:Eastman Johnson - Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage - ebj - fig 22 pg 41.jpg, Details of ''Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage'' by Eastman Johnson, c. 1906 File:Chippewa lodges, Beaver Bay, by Childs, B. F..jpg, Vintage
stereoscopic Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word ''stereoscopy'' derives . Any stereoscopic image is ...
photo entitled "Chippewa lodges, Beaver Bay, by Childs, B. F." File:Upper Mazinaw Lake, Mazinaw Rock.jpg, Pictographs on Mazinaw Rock, Bon Echo Provincial Park,
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...


Bands

In his ''History of the Ojibway People'' (1855), William W. Warren recorded 10 major divisions of the Ojibwe in the United States. He mistakenly omitted the Ojibwe located in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of Canada. When identified major historical bands located in Michigan and Ontario are added, the count becomes 15: These 15 major divisions developed into the following Ojibwe Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible. See also the listing of Saulteaux communities. *
Aamjiwnaang First Nation The Aamjiwnaang First Nation (formerly known as Chippewas of Sarnia First Nation) is an Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) First Nations Band located on reserve land by the St. Clair River, three miles south of the southern tip of Lake Huron. The reserve is ...
*
Aroland First Nation Aroland First Nation ( 2016 Population 366) is a Ojibwa, Oji-Cree and cree First Nation within the Nishnawbe Aski Nation Territory and a signatory to Treaty 9, located in the Thunder Bay District approximately 20 kilometres west of Nakina. Arolan ...
* Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways * Bay Mills Indian Community * Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation * Burt Lake Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians * Caldwell First Nation *
Chapleau Ojibway First Nation Chapleau Ojibway First Nation is an Ojibwa First Nation located near Chapleau Township, Sudbury District, Ontario, Canada. The First Nation have reserved for themselves the 67 ha Chapleau 61A Indian Reserve, 64.7 ha Chapleau 74 Indian Reserve an ...
*
Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Kettle & Stony Point First Nation ( oj, Wiiwkwedong Anishinaabek, meaning: "in/at the bay") comprises the Kettle Point reserve and Stony Point Reserve (which is under remedial cleanup after over 50 years of occupation by the Canadian Armed Forces), ...
* Chippewas of Lake Simcoe and Huron (Historical) ** Beausoleil First Nation **
Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation frame, Map of York Region showing Fox, Snake, and Georgina islands. Georgina Island, Lake Simcoe, Ontario The Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation ( oj, Waaseyaagmiing Anishinaabek) are an Ojibwa (or Anishinaabeg) people located on Georg ...
** Chippewas of Rama First Nation (formerly known as ''Chippewas of Mnjikaning First Nation'') * Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation * Chippewa of the Thames First Nation *
Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory The Saugeen Ojibway Nation Territory ( oj, Saukiing Anishnaabekiing), also known as ''Saugeen Ojibway Nation'', ''SON'' and the ''Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory'', is the name applied to Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation and Saugeen ...
(Historical) ** Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation ** Saugeen First Nation * Chippewa Cree Tribe of Rocky Boys Indian Reservation *
Curve Lake First Nation Curve Lake First Nation ( oj, Oshkiigmong) is a Mississauga Ojibway First Nation located in Peterborough County of Ontario. Curve Lake First Nation occupies three reserves; Curve Lake First Nation 35, Curve Lake 35A, and Islands in the Trent ...
*
Cutler First Nation The Serpent River First Nation ( oj, Genabaajing Anishinaabek), a signatory to the Robinson Huron Treaty of 1850, is an Anishinaabe First Nation in the Canadian province of Ontario, located midway between Sault Ste. Marie and Sudbury along the No ...
* Dokis First Nation * Eabametoong First Nation * First Nation of Ojibwe California * Fort William First Nation *
Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians The Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians ( oj, Gichi-wiikwedong Odaawaag miina ojibweg) is a federally recognized Native American tribe located in northwest Michigan on the Leelanau Peninsula. Sam McClellan is the current tribal ...
*
Garden River First Nation Garden River First Nation, also known as Ketegaunseebee (''Gitigaan-ziibi Anishinaabe'' in the Ojibwe language), is an Ojibwa band located at Garden River 14 near Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada. The Garden River reserve consists of two non-co ...
*
Henvey Inlet First Nation Henvey Inlet First Nation is an Ojibwe First Nations band government in Parry Sound District Parry Sound District is a census division of the Canadian province of Ontario. Its boundaries are District of Muskoka to the south, the Sudbury District ...
* Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg) * Islands in the Trent Waters *
Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation (KOFN; also known as Riding Mountain Band, oj, Giizhigowininiing) is a First Nations community primarily located on Keeseekoowenin 61 (Indian Reserve 61A), situated near Elphinstone, Manitoba, south of Riding ...
(also known as ''Riding Mountain Band'') * Koocheching First Nation *
Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation The Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation, also known as Nizaatikoong (from ''Ne-azaadiikaang'' meaning "At a Point of Land Abundant with Poplars"), is a Saulteaux Ojibwe First Nation band government. The nation owns two reserves in the Thunder Bay Dist ...
* Lac La Croix First Nation * Lac Seul First Nation * Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation * Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe **
Bad River Chippewa Band The Bad River LaPointe Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians or Bad River Tribe for short ( oj, Mashkii ziibii) are a federally recognized tribe of Ojibwe people. The tribe had 6,945 members as of 2010. The Bad River Reservation i ...
**
Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (or the ''Gete-gitigaaning'' in the Anishinaabe language) is a band of the Lake Superior Chippewa, many of whom reside on the Lac Vieux Desert Indian Reservation, located near Watersmeet, Michigan. ...
** Keweenaw Bay Indian Community *** L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians *** Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians **
Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians The Lac Courte Oreilles Tribe ( oj, Odaawaa-zaaga'iganiing) is one of six federally recognized bands of Ojibwe people located in present-day Wisconsin. It had 7,275 enrolled members as of 2010. The band is based at the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian R ...
*** Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians *** Removable St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin ** Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa **
Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa () is a band of Ojibwe Native Americans. The Red Cliff Band is located on the Red Cliff Indian Reservation, on Lake Superior in Bayfield County, Wisconsin. Red Cliff, Wisconsin, is the administrative cent ...
**
Sokaogon Chippewa Community The Sokaogon Chippewa Community, or the Mole Lake Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, is a federally recognized tribe of the Lake Superior Chippewa, many of whom reside on the Mole Lake Indian Reservation, located southwest of the city of Crandon, ...
**
St. Croix Chippewa Indians The St. Croix Chippewa Indians (Ojibwe language: ''Manoominikeshiinyag'', the "Ricing Rails") are a historical Band of Ojibwe located along the St. Croix River, which forms the boundary between the U.S. states of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The majo ...
of Wisconsin * Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana * Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians *
Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians The Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians is a state recognized tribe of Ojibwe and Odawa Native Americans, based in the state Michigan.
* Magnetawan First Nation * Minnesota Chippewa Tribe ** Bois Forte Band of Chippewa *** Bois Forte Band of Chippewa *** Lake Vermilion Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Little Forks Band of Rainy River Saulteaux ** Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa **
Grand Portage Band of Chippewa The Grand Portage Indian Reservation (Ojibwe language: Gichi-onigamiing) is the Indian reservation of the Grand Portage Band of Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, a federally recognized tribe in Minnesota. The reservation is in Cook County near the tip of ...
** Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe *** Cass Lake Band of Chippewa *** Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa *** Leech Lake Band of Pillagers *** Removable Lake Superior Bands of Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation *** White Oak Point Band of
Mississippi Chippewa Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians ( oj, Gichi-ziibiwininiwag) or simply the Mississippi Chippewa, are a historical Ojibwa Band inhabiting the headwaters of the Mississippi River and its tributaries in present-day Minnesota. According to th ...
**** Pokegama Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa **** Removable Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa ** Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe ***
Mille Lacs Indians The Mille Lacs Indians (Ojibwe: ''Misi-zaaga'iganiwininiwag''), also known as the Mille Lacs and Snake River Band of Chippewa, are a Band of Indians formed from the unification of the Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa (Ojibwe) with the Mille ...
***
Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa (Ojibwe: ''Gaa-mitaawangaagamaag-ininiwag'') are a historical Ojibwa tribe located in the upper Mississippi River basin, on and around Big Sandy Lake in what today is in Aitkin County, Minnesota. Though po ...
***
Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly '' Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera ''Zizania'' and ''Porteresia'', both wild and domesticate ...
*** St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of Minnesota **** Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indians **** Snake and Knife Rivers Band of Chippewa Indians **
White Earth Band of Chippewa The White Earth Band of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, also called the White Earth Nation ( oj, Gaa-waabaabiganikaag Anishinaabeg, "People from where there is an abundance of white clay"), is a federally recognized Native American band located ...
*** Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** Otter Tail Band of Pillagers *** Rabbit Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** Removable Mille Lacs Indians *** Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa * Mississaugi First Nation * North Caribou Lake First Nation *
Ojibway Nation of Saugeen First Nation The Ojibway Nation of Saugeen is an Ojibwa First Nation in the Canadian province of Ontario. The Nation is located in the Thunder Bay District, approximately 20 kilometres northwest of Savant Lake. In December, 2007, its total registered popul ...
* Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation * Osnaburg House Band of Ojibway and Cree (Historical) ** Cat Lake First Nation ** Mishkeegogamang First Nation (formerly known as ''New Osnaburgh First Nation'') ** Slate Falls First Nation *
Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Ojibwe: ''Aniibiminani-ziibiwininiwag'') are a historical band of Chippewa (Ojibwe), originally living along the Red River of the North and its tributaries. Through the treaty process with the United States, the Pe ...
(Historical) * Pikangikum First Nation * Poplar Hill First Nation * Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians ** Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians *
Rolling River First Nation The Rolling River First Nation ( oj, Ditibineya-ziibiing) is an Ojibwe First Nations community in Manitoba , image_map = Manitoba in Canada 2.svg , map_alt = Map showing Manitoba's location in the centre of Sou ...
*
Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation The Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation, also known as Many Rivers Joining-Human Beings, is a First Nations band government located in Ontario, Canada. Sagamok's culture and language is Anishinabek and is made up of the Ojibwe, Odawa and Pottawatomi ...
*
Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe of Michigan ( oj, Ziibiwing Anishinaabek) is a federally recognized band of Chippewa (a.k.a. Ojibwe) located in central Michigan in the United States. The tribal government offices are located on the Isabella Indian ...
*
Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians The Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians (pronounced "Soo Saint Marie", oj, Baawiting Anishinaabeg), commonly shortened to Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians or the more colloquial Soo Tribe, is a federally recognized Native American tribe in ...
*
Saulteaux The Saulteaux (pronounced , or in imitation of the French pronunciation , also written Salteaux, Saulteau and other variants), otherwise known as the Plains Ojibwe, are a First Nations band government in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan ...
First Nation *
Shawanaga First Nation Shawanaga First Nation is an Anishinaabe First Nation band government in central Ontario near Nobel. Its reserves include: * Naiscoutaing 17A * Shawanaga 17 * Shawanaga 17B Shawanaga First Nation is located in Ontario at . The community is a ...
* Southeast Tribal Council ** Berens River First Nation **
Bloodvein First Nation The Bloodvein First Nation is a First Nations community located on the east side of Lake Winnipeg, along the Bloodvein River in Manitoba, Canada. There are many caribou, bears, wolves, bald eagles, lynx, owls, and various species of fish in the ...
** Brokenhead First Nation ** Buffalo Point First Nation (Saulteaux) ** Hollow Water First Nation ** Black River First Nation ** Little Grand Rapids First Nation ** Pauingassi First Nation (Saulteaux) **
Poplar River First Nation Poplar River First Nation (Ojibwe: ''Azaadiwi-ziibing'') is an Ojibwa First Nation in Manitoba, Canada. It is named after the Poplar River, which is the main river on which it resides. Its landbase is the Poplar River 16, an Indian reserve loca ...
* Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians * Wabaseemoong Independent Nation *
Wabauskang First Nation Wabauskang First Nation is a Saulteaux First Nation in northwestern Ontario, and is a member of the Bimose Tribal Council and the Grand Council of Treaty 3 Grand Council of Treaty 3 (GCT3) is a political organization representing 24 First Nation ...
* Wabun Tribal Council ** Beaverhouse First Nation ** Brunswick House First Nation ** Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation ** Matachewan First Nation **
Mattagami First Nation The Mattagami First Nation is an Anishnaabe First Nation band government - mainly Ojibwe, Oji-Cree and some Odawa - in the Canadian province of Ontario situated along the Mattagami River. The First Nation members of the community primarily li ...
** Wahgoshig First Nation *
Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation, commonly known as Wabigoon First Nation ( Anishinaabemowin: ''Waabigoniiw Saaga'iganiiw Anishinaabeg''), is a Saulteaux First Nation band government who inhabit the Kenora District in northwestern Ontario, Canada. It ...
* Wahnapitae First Nation * Walpole Island First Nation * Washagamis Bay First Nation * Whitefish Bay First Nation *
Whitefish Lake First Nation The Whitefish Lake First Nation ( cr, ᐊᑎᐦᑲᒣᐠ, atihkamek) is a First Nations band government in northern Alberta. Headquartered in Atikameg, it controls three Indian reserves, Utikoomak Lake 155 Utikoomak Lake 155 is an Indian rese ...
*
Whitefish River First Nation Whitefish River First Nation ( oj, Adikamegoshii-ziibiing)Weshki-ayaad, Charlie Lippert & Guy T. Gambill. FREELANG Ojibwe-English-Ojibwe online dictionarLink/ref> is an Ojibwe First Nation in Manitoulin District, Ontario. It is a member of the Un ...
* Whitesand First Nation * Whitewater Lake First Nation * Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation


Notable historic Ojibwe people

Ojibwe people from the 20th and 21st centuries should be listed under their specific tribes. * Ah-shah-way-gee-she-go-qua (Aazhawigiizhigokwe, Hanging Cloud), 19th c. Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe woman warrior * Francis Assikinack (1824–1863), historian from Manitoulin Island * Stephen Bonga, Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter"Portrait of Stephen Bonga"
Wisconsin Historical Images, accessed 23 January 2014
*
George Bonga George Bonga (August 20, 1802 – 1880) was a fur trader, entrepreneur and interpreter for the U.S. government, who was of Ojibwe and Black descent, fluent in French, Ojibwemowin and English. At the age of eighteen, he served as an interpreter ...
(1802–1880), Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter * Jeanne L'Strange Cappel (1873–1949), writer, teacher and clubwoman * George Copway (1818–1869), missionary and writer * Fr. Philip B. Gordon (1885–1948), Roman Catholic priest and activist from Gordon, Wisconsin * Margaret Bonga Fahlstrom (c.1797–1880), Ojibwe-African American woman in the early Methodist Episcopal Church in Minnesota * Hole in the Day (1825-1868), Chief of the Mississippi Band of the
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over t ...
Ojibwe * Peter Jones (1802–1856),
Mississauga Mississauga ( ), historically known as Toronto Township, is a city in the Canadian province of Ontario. It is situated on the shores of Lake Ontario in the Regional Municipality of Peel, adjoining the western border of Toronto. With a popu ...
missionary and writer * Kechewaishke (Gichi-Weshkiinh, Buffalo) (ca. 1759–1855), chief * Edmonia Lewis (ca. 1844–1907),
Mississauga Mississauga ( ), historically known as Toronto Township, is a city in the Canadian province of Ontario. It is situated on the shores of Lake Ontario in the Regional Municipality of Peel, adjoining the western border of Toronto. With a popu ...
Ojibwe/African-American sculptor *
Maungwudaus George Henry (1811–1888), later Maungwudaus, was an Ojibwe performer, interpreter, mission worker, and herbalist. He interpreted the Ojibwe language into English. He was a herbalist towards the end of his life. Early life Maungwudaus was ...
, George Henry (1811–1888), performer, interpreter, mission worker, and herbalist * Medweganoonind, 19th-century Red Lake Ojibwe chief * Ozaawindib (Ozaawindib, Yellow Head), early 19th c. nonbinary warrior, guide * Keewaydinoquay Peschel (1919–1999), teacher, ethnobotanist * Chief Rocky Boy (fl. late 19th c.), chief *
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, also known as Bamewawagezhikaquay (January 31, 1800 – May 22, 1842) is the one of earliest Native American literary writers. She was of Ojibwa and Scots-Irish ancestry. Her Ojibwa name can also be written as ''O-bah-b ...
(1800–1842), author, wife of
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (March 28, 1793 – December 10, 1864) was an American geographer, geologist, and ethnologist, noted for his early studies of Native American cultures, as well as for his 1832 expedition to the source of the Mississippi ...
, born in Sault Ste. Marie * John Smith, Gaa-binagwiiyaas (ca. 1824–1922, chief, from Cass Lake, Minnesota *
Alfred Michael "Chief" Venne Alfred Michael Venne (1879–1971) was an Ojibwa (Chippewa) Native American. He was educated at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Pennsylvania. He later became an educator, athletic manager and coach, administrator and mentor to countless yo ...
(1879–1971), athletic manager and coach from Leroy, North Dakota * Waabaanakwad (White Cloud) (ca. 1830-1898), Gull Lake chief * William Whipple Warren (1825–1853), first historical writer of the Ojibwe people, territorial legislator * Zheewegonab (fl. 1780–1805), band leader among the northern Ojibwe *
Cara Gee Cara Gee (born July 18, 1983) is a Canadian film, television, and stage actress. She is known for her roles in the television series ''Strange Empire'' and '' The Expanse''. She is described by Forbes as "one of the most prominent indigenous wome ...
(1983-), Canadian actress * Trixie Mattel (1989-), American drag queen


Ojibwe treaties

* Chippewa Ottawa Resource Authority—1836CT fisheries * Grand Council of Treaty 3—Treaty 3 * Grand Council of Treaty 8—Treaty 8 * Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission—1837CT, 1836CT, 1842CT and 1854CT * Nishnawbe Aski Nation—Treaty 5 and Treaty 9 *
Red Lake Band of Chippewa The Red Lake Indian Reservation (Ojibwe: ''Miskwaagamiiwi-zaaga'iganing'') covers in parts of nine counties in northwestern Minnesota, United States. It is made up of numerous holdings but the largest section is an area about Red Lake, in n ...
—1886CT and 1889CT * Union of Ontario Indians—RS, RH1, RH2, misc. pre-confederation treaties ; Treaties with France * La Grande Paix de Montréal (1701) ; Treaties with Great Britain and the United Kingdom * Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764) * Treaty of Fort Niagara (1781) * Indian Officers' Land Treaty (1783) * The Crawford Purchases (1783) * Between the Lakes Purchase (1784) * Treaty of Peace with Sioux, Chippewa and Winnebago (1787) * Toronto Purchase (1787) ** Indenture to the Toronto Purchase (1805) * The McKee Purchase (1790) * Between the Lakes Purchase (1792) * Chenail Ecarte (Sombra Township) Purchase (1796) * London Township Purchase (1796) * Land for Joseph Brant (1797) * Penetanguishene Bay Purchase (1798) * St. Joseph Island (1798) * Head-of-the-Lake Purchase (1806) * Lake Simcoe-Lake Huron Purchase (1815) * Lake Simcoe-Nottawasaga Purchase (1818) * Ajetance Purchase (1818) * Rice Lake Purchase (1818) * The Rideau Purchase (1819) * Long Woods Purchase (1822) * Huron Tract Purchase (1827) *
Saugeen Tract Agreement Saugeen Tract Agreement, registered as Crown Treaty Number 45, was signed August 9, 1836 between the Saugeen Ojibwa and Ottawa and the government of Upper Canada. Conducted on the Manitoulin Island, Sir Francis Bond Head used this occasion for th ...
(1836) * Manitoulin Agreement (1836) * The
Robinson Treaties The Robinson Treaties are two treaties signed between the Ojibwa chiefs and The Crown in 1850 in the Province of Canada. The first treaty involved Ojibwa chiefs along the north shore of Lake Superior, and is known as the Robinson Superior Treaty. ...
** Ojibewa Indians of Lake Superior (1850) ** Ojibewa Indians of Lake Huron (1850) * Manitoulin Island Treaty (1862) ; Treaties with Canada * Treaty No. 1 (1871)—Stone Fort Treaty * Treaty No. 2 (1871) * Treaty No. 3 (1873)—
Northwest Angle The Northwest Angle, known simply as the Angle by locals, and coextensive with Angle Township, is a pene-exclave of northern Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota. Except for surveying errors, it is the only place in the contiguous United Sta ...
Treaty * Treaty No. 4 (1874)—Qu'Appelle Treaty * Treaty No. 5 (1875) * Treaty No. 6 (1876) * Treaty No. 8 (1899) *
Treaty No. 9 ''Treaty No. 9'' (also known as ''The James Bay Treaty'') is a numbered treaty first signed in 1905-1906 between Anishinaabe (Algonquin and Ojibway) and Omushkegowuk Cree communities and the Canadian Crown, which includes both the governm ...
(1905–1906)—
James Bay James Bay (french: Baie James; cr, ᐐᓂᐯᒄ, Wînipekw, dirty water) is a large body of water located on the southern end of Hudson Bay in Canada. Both bodies of water extend from the Arctic Ocean, of which James Bay is the southernmost p ...
Treaty * Treaty No. 5, Adhesions (1908–1910) * The Williams Treaties (1923) ** The Chippewa Indians ** The Mississauga Indians * Treaty No. 9, Adhesions (1929–1930) ; Treaties with the United States * Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785) * Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789) * Treaty of Greenville (1795) *
Fort Industry A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''face ...
(1805) *
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Mich ...
(1807) *
Treaty of Brownstown The Treaty of Brownstown was between the United States and the Council of Three Fires ( Chippewa, Ottawa, Potawatomi), Wyandott, and Shawanoese Indian Nations. It was concluded November 25, 1808, at Brownstown in Michigan Territory, and pr ...
(1808) * Treaty of Springwells (1815) * Treaty of St. Louis (1816)—Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi * Treaty of Miami Rapids (1817) * Treaty of St. Mary's (1818) * Treaty of Saginaw (1819) * Treaty of Saúlt Ste. Marie (1820) * Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac (1820) * Treaty of Chicago (1821) * First Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825) * Treaty of Fond du Lac (1826) *
Treaty of Butte des Morts A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
(1827) * Treaty of Green Bay (1828) * Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829) * Treaty of Chicago (1833) * Treaty of Washington (1836)—Ottawa & Chippewa * Treaty of Washington (1836)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands *
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Mich ...
(1837) * Treaty of St. Peters (1837)—White Pine Treaty *
Treaty of Flint River A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
(1837) * Saganaw Treaties ** Treaty of Saganaw (1838) ** Supplemental Treaty (1839) * Treaty of La Pointe (1842)—Copper Treaty **
Isle Royale Agreement The Treaty of La Pointe may refer to either of two treaties made and signed in La Pointe, Wisconsin between the United States and the Ojibwe (Chippewa) Native American peoples. In addition, the Isle Royale Agreement, an adhesion to the first Trea ...
(1844) * Treaty of Potawatomi Creek (1846) * Treaty of Fond du Lac (1847) * Treaty of Leech Lake (1847) * Treaty of La Pointe (1854) * Treaty of Washington (1855) * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Ottawa & Chippewa * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Sault Ste. Marie Band * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands * Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency (1859) * Treaty of Washington (1863) *
Treaty of Old Crossing (1863) By the Treaty of Old Crossing (1863) and the Treaty of Old Crossing (1864), the Pembina and Red Lake bands of the Ojibwe, then known as Chippewa Indians, purportedly ceded to the United States all of their rights to the Red River Valley. On the ...
* Treaty of Old Crossing (1864) * Treaty of Washington (1864) * Treaty of Isabella Reservation (1864) * Treaty of Washington (1866) * Treaty of Washington (1867)


Gallery

File:A-na-cam-e-gish-ca.jpg, A-na-cam-e-gish-ca (''Aanakamigishkaang''/"
races of The Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES) is an emergency radio service authorized in Part 97.407 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) rules and regulations governing amateur radio in the United States.pon the Ground), Ojibwe chief, from '' History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay.jpg, Bust of Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (''Eshkibagikoonzhe'' or "Flat Mouth"), a Leech Lake Ojibwe chief File:Nanongabe.jpg, Chief
Beautifying Bird Chief Beautifying Bird or Dressing Bird (Nay-naw-ong-gay-be, Na-naw-ong-ga-be, or Ne-na-nang-eb (''Nenaa'angebi'' in the Fiero orthography of Ojibwe), meaning " ird thatFixes-up Its Wing-feathers"), (1794–1855) was a principal chief of the Prai ...
(''Nenaa'angebi''), by Benjamin Armstrong, 1891 File:Be sheekee.jpg, Bust of
Beshekee Beshekee, also Pezeke and other variant spellings of Ojibwe ''Bizhiki'' (English: Buffalo), was a noted war chief from the Bear ''doodem'' of the Pillager Chippewa Band during the 19th century in North America. As a young man, he signed the 1837 ...
, war chief, modeled 1855, carved 1856 File:Caa-tou-see.jpg, ''Caa-tou-see'', an Ojibwe, from '' History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Hangingcloud.jpg,
Hanging Cloud Hanging Cloud (known in Ojibwe as ''Aazhawigiizhigokwe'' meaning "Goes Across the Sky Woman" or as ''Ashwiyaa'' meaning "Arms oneself") was an Ojibwe woman who was a full warrior (''ogichidaakwe'' in Ojibwe) among her people, and claimed by the ...
, a female Ojibwe warrior File:Jack-O-Pa.jpg, Jack-O-Pa (''
Zhaagobe Zhaagobe (c.1794), also known as Jack-O-Pa or Shagobai, was a St. Croix Ojibwe chief of the Snake River band. He signed several Chippewa treaties with the United States, including the 1825 Treaty of Prairie du Chien, the 1826 Treaty of Fond d ...
''/"Six"), a St. Croix Ojibwe chief, from '' History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Eastman Johnson - Kay be sen day way We Win - ejb - fig 101 - pg 225.jpg, ''Kay be sen day way We Win'', by Eastman Johnson, 1857 File:George Catlin 003.jpg, Kei-a-gis-gis, a Plains Ojibwe woman, painted by
George Catlin George Catlin (July 26, 1796 – December 23, 1872) was an American adventurer, lawyer, painter, author, and traveler, who specialized in portraits of Native Americans in the Old West. Traveling to the American West five times during the 18 ...
File:Leech Lake Chippewa delegation to Washington 1899.png, Leech Lake Ojibwe delegation to Washington, 1899 File:1940 govt photo minnesota farming scene chippewa baby teething on magazine indians at work.jpg, Chippewa baby teething on "Indians at Work" magazine while strapped to a cradleboard at a rice lake in 1940. File:Ojibwa Chief.gif, Ne-bah-quah-om, Ojibwe chief File:One-Called-From-A-Distance Chippewa.jpg, "One Called From A Distance" (''Midwewinind'') of the
White Earth Band The White Earth Band of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, also called the White Earth Nation ( oj, Gaa-waabaabiganikaag Anishinaabeg, "People from where there is an abundance of white clay"), is a federally recognized Native American band located ...
, 1894. File:PeeCheKir.jpg, Pee-Che-Kir, Ojibwe chief, painted by Thomas Loraine McKenney, 1843 File:Rocky Boy Chippewa chief.jpg, Ojibwe chief Rocky Boy File:Squawandchild.jpg, Ojibwe woman and child, from '' History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Tshusick.jpg, ''Tshusick'', an Ojibwe woman, from '' History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Photograph of Chief Medicine Man of Chippewa Indians Axel Pasey with His Family - NARA - 2128360.jpg, Chief medicine man Axel Pasey and family at Grand Portage Minnesota. File:Historic petition of Ojibwe Chiefs 1849 Seth Eastman State Historical Society of Wisconsin.png, Historic 1849 petition of Ojibwe chiefs File:Wells american indian picture writing.png, Wells American Indian picture writing File:Edmonia Lewis by Henry Rocher.jpg, Wildfire, English name Edmonia Lewis


See also

* Amikwa people * First Nations * Timeline of First Nations history * History of Native Americans in the United States *
Native Americans in the United States Native Americans, also known as American Indians, First Americans, Indigenous Americans, and other terms, are the Indigenous peoples of the mainland United States ( Indigenous peoples of Hawaii, Alaska and territories of the United States ...


References


Notes


Bibliography

* * H. Hickerson, ''The Chippewa and Their Neighbors'' (1970) * R. Landes, ''Ojibwa Sociology'' (1937, repr. 1969) * R. Landes, ''Ojibwa Woman'' (1938, repr. 1971) * * F. Symington, ''The Canadian Indian'' (1969)


Further reading


Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009
* * Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book. * Child, Brenda J. (2014). ''My Grandfather's Knocking Sticks: Ojibwe Family Life and Labor on the Reservation.'' St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. * Danziger, E.J., Jr. (1978). ''The Chippewa of Lake Superior''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. * Denial, Catherine J. (2013). ''Making Marriage: Husbands, Wives, and the American State in Dakota and Ojibwe Country.'' St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. * Densmore, F. (1979). ''Chippewa customs''. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. (Published originally 1929) * Grim, J.A. (1983). ''The shaman: Patterns of religious healing among the Ojibway Indians''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. * Gross, L.W. (2002). ''The comic vision of Anishinaabe culture and religion''. American Indian Quarterly, 26, 436–459. * Howse, Joseph. ''A Grammar of the Cree Language; With which is combined an analysis of the Chippeway dialect''. London: J.G.F. & J. Rivington, 1844. * Johnston, B. (1976). ''Ojibway heritage''. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. * Long, J. ''Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader Describing the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians, with an Account of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages''. London: Robson, 1791. * Nichols, J.D., & Nyholm, E. (1995). ''A concise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * Treuer, Anton
Everything You Wanted to Know About Indians But Were Afraid to Ask
St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012. * Treuer, Anton.
The Assassination of Hole in the Day
'. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2011. * Treuer, Anton. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2010
Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.

Treuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
* Vizenor, G. (1972). ''The everlasting sky: New voices from the people named the Chippewa''. New York: Crowell-Collier Press. * Vizenor, G. (1981). ''Summer in the spring: Ojibwe lyric poems and tribal stories''. Minneapolis: The Nodin Press. * Vizenor, G. (1984). ''The people named the Chippewa: Narrative histories''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * Warren, William W. (1851). ''History of the Ojibway People.'' * White, Richard (1991). ''The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815'' (Studies in North American Indian History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. * White, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News. * Wub-e-ke-niew. (1995). ''We have the right to exist: A translation of aboriginal indigenous thought''. New York: Black Thistle Press.


External links



recorded by Frances Desmore
Ojibwe People's Dictionary

''Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa''
�� PBS documentary featuring the history and culture of the Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes (United States–focused). *
Ojibwe migratory map
from Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways

Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa

Mississaugi First Nation

Southeast Tribal Council

Wabun Tribal Council

''Ojibwe Stories: Gaganoonididaa''
from the Public Radio Exchange {{Authority control Algonquian ethnonyms Algonquian peoples Anishinaabe groups Anishinaabe lands First Nations in Alberta First Nations in Manitoba First Nations in Ontario First Nations in Quebec First Nations in Saskatchewan Great Lakes tribes Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands Native American tribes in Michigan Native American tribes in Minnesota Native American tribes in Montana Native American tribes in North Dakota Native American tribes in Wisconsin Native American tribes Plains tribes Upper Peninsula of Michigan