The military of the Ottoman Empire ( tr, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri) was the
armed forces
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
of the
Ottoman Empire.
Army
The military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 (Byzantine expedition) and 1453 (
Conquest of Constantinople), the classical period covers the years between 1451 (second enthronement of Sultan
Mehmed II
Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
) and 1606 (
Peace of Zsitvatorok), the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 (
Vaka-i Hayriye), the modernisation period covers the years between 1826 and 1858 and decline period covers the years between 1861 (enthronement of Sultan
Abdülaziz
Abdulaziz ( ota, عبد العزيز, ʿAbdü'l-ʿAzîz; tr, Abdülaziz; 8 February 18304 June 1876) was the 32nd List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and reigned from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was 187 ...
) and 1918 (
Armistice of Mudros). The Ottoman army is the forerunner of the
Turkish Armed Forces.
Foundation period (1300–1453)
The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force.
[Mesut Uyar, Edward J. Erickson, ''A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk'', Pleager Security International, , 2009, p. 1.] This was centralized by
Osman I from
Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western
Anatolia in the late 13th century.
These horsemen became an
irregular force of raiders used as
shock troops, armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called ''
timars'' in the conquered lands, and were later called
timariots. In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns.
Orhan I organized a standing army paid by salary rather than
looting
Looting is the act of stealing, or the taking of goods by force, typically in the midst of a military, political, or other social crisis, such as war, natural disasters (where law and civil enforcement are temporarily ineffective), or rioting. ...
or fiefs. The infantry were called
yayas and the cavalry was known as ''müsellem''s. The force was made up by foreign
mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any o ...
for the most part, and only a few Turks were content to accept salaries in place of timars. Foreign mercenaries were not required to convert to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders.
The Ottomans began using guns in the late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regular
musketeer
A musketeer (french: mousquetaire) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare particularly in Europe as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a pre ...
s (''Piyade Topçu'', literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed with
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s (''Süvari Topçu Neferi'', literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later European
reiter or
carabinier; and bombardiers (''
Humbaracı''), consisting of
grenadier
A grenadier ( , ; derived from the word '' grenade'') was originally a specialist soldier who threw hand grenades in battle. The distinct combat function of the grenadier was established in the mid-17th century, when grenadiers were recruited fr ...
s who threw explosives called khımbara and the soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies.
The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic
Gunpowder Empires, followed by
Safavid Persia
Safavid Iran or Safavid Persia (), also referred to as the Safavid Empire, '. was one of the greatest Iranian empires after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Persia, which was ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the Safavid dynasty. It is often conside ...
and
Mughal India
The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...
. By the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowder
artillery. The adoption of the gunpowder weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they "preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling of
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s." But it was their use of artillery shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic Gunpowder Empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of
Bayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful
siege of Salonica in 1430.
The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
Janissaries
A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
had initially been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. By the time of
Sultan Mehmed II, they had been drilled with firearms and became "perhaps the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world." The Janissaries are thus considered the first modern standing armies. The combination of artillery and
Janissary firepower proved decisive at
Varna in 1444 against a force of Crusaders, and later
Başkent and
Chaldoran
Chaldoran County ( fa, شهرستان چالدران) is located in West Azerbaijan province, Iran. The capital of the county is Siah Cheshmeh, ( fa, سيه چشمه, links=no) or Qara Aineh. At the 2006 census, the county's population was 143 ...
against the
Aq Qoyunlu
The Aq Qoyunlu ( az, Ağqoyunlular , ) was a culturally Persianate,Kaushik Roy, ''Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750'', (Bloomsbury, 2014), 38; "Post-Mongol Persia and Iraq were ruled by two tribal confederations: Akkoyunlu (Wh ...
and Safavids.
Classical Army (1451–1606)
Ottoman Classical Army was the military structure and the founding and main
army established by
Mehmed II
Mehmed II ( ota, محمد ثانى, translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī; tr, II. Mehmed, ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror ( ota, ابو الفتح, Ebū'l-fetḥ, lit=the Father of Conquest, links=no; tr, Fâtih Su ...
, during his reorganization of the state and the military efforts. This is the major reorganization following
Orhan I which organized a standing army paid by salary rather than
booty or fiefs. This army was the force during
rise of the Ottoman Empire. The organization was twofold, central (Kapu Kulu) and peripheral (Eyalet). The classical Ottoman army was the most disciplined and feared military force of its time, mainly due to its high level of organization, logistical capabilities and its elite troops. Following a century long reform efforts, this Army was forced to disbandment by Sultan
Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 by what is known as
Auspicious Incident. By the reign of Mahmud the second, the elite janissaries had become corrupt and always stood in the way of modernization efforts meaning they were more of a liability than an asset.
By the
siege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans had large enough
cannons to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders. The
Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a
Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the
Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with
propellant
A propellant (or propellent) is a mass that is expelled or expanded in such a way as to create a thrust or other motive force in accordance with Newton's third law of motion, and "propel" a vehicle, projectile, or fluid payload. In vehicles, the e ...
and
projectile
A projectile is an object that is propelled by the application of an external force and then moves freely under the influence of gravity and air resistance. Although any objects in motion through space are projectiles, they are commonly found in ...
s, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.
[Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", ''Technikgeschichte'' 44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)]
The
musket
A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually d ...
first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.
Damascus steel was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century. At the
Battle of Mohács
The Battle of Mohács (; hu, mohácsi csata, tr, Mohaç Muharebesi or Mohaç Savaşı) was fought on 29 August 1526 near Mohács, Kingdom of Hungary, between the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary and its allies, led by Louis II, and those ...
in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.
The
marching band and
military band both have their origins in the
Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.
Reform on Classical Army (1606–1826)
The main theme of this period is reforming the
Janissaries
A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
. The Janissary corps were originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as the most efficient and effective military unit in Europe..By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians.
Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however the Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them from the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary. At the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary.
In 1621, the Chinese ''
Wu Pei Chih'' described Ottoman muskets that used a
rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time.
The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer
Claude-Alexandre de Bonneval
Claude Alexandre, Comte de Bonneval (14 July 1675 – 23 March 1747), was a French army officer who later went into the service of the Ottoman Empire, eventually converting to Islam and becoming known as Humbaracı Ahmet Paşa.
Life
He was the ...
(1675–1747) went in the service of Sultan
Mahmud I
Mahmud I ( ota, محمود اول, tr, I. Mahmud, 2 August 1696 13 December 1754), known as Mahmud the Hunchback, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He took over the throne after the Patrona Halil rebellion and he kept goo ...
, converted to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, and endeavoured to modernize the
Ottoman army, creating cannon foundries, powder and musket factories and a military engineering school. Another officer
François Baron de Tott was involved in the
reform efforts for the Ottoman military. He succeeded in having a new foundry built to make
howitzer
A howitzer () is a long- ranged weapon, falling between a cannon (also known as an artillery gun in the United States), which fires shells at flat trajectories, and a mortar, which fires at high angles of ascent and descent. Howitzers, like ot ...
s, and was instrumental in the creation of mobile artillery units. He built fortifications on the
Bosphorus
The Bosporus Strait (; grc, Βόσπορος ; tr, İstanbul Boğazı 'Istanbul strait', colloquially ''Boğaz'') or Bosphorus Strait is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul in northwestern Tu ...
and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the later
Turkish Naval Academy.
He could only achieve limited success, however. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
When they had requested French help in 1795, young
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
was scheduled to be sent to Constantinople to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob at ''
13 Vendémiaire
13 Vendémiaire Year 4 in the French Republican Calendar (5 October 1795 in the Gregorian calendar) is the name given to a battle between the French Revolutionary troops and Royalist forces in the streets of Paris. This battle was part of the ...
'' and was kept in France.
The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.
Sultan
Selim III
Selim III ( ota, سليم ثالث, Selim-i sâlis; tr, III. Selim; was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, the Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa ...
in 1789 to 1807 set up the "
Nizam-i Cedid"
ew orderarmy to replace the inefficient and outmoded imperial army. The old system depended on
Janissaries
A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
, who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for a new army, so a new treasury
Irad-i Cedid'was established . The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. The new army was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century.
Efforts for a new system (1826–1858)
The main theme of this period is disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated as
Auspicious Incident. The military units formed were used in the
Crimean War,
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 ( tr, 93 Harbi, lit=War of ’93, named for the year 1293 in the Islamic calendar; russian: Русско-турецкая война, Russko-turetskaya voyna, "Russian–Turkish war") was a conflict between th ...
, and
Greco-Turkish War (1897).
The failed efforts of a new system dates before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed the
Nizam-ı Cedid army (Nizam-ı Cedid meaning New Order) in the late 18th century and early 19th century. This was the first serious attempt to transform the Ottoman military forces into a modern army. However, the Nizam-ı Cedid was short lived, dissolving after the abdication of Selim III in 1807.
Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident).
The
Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye
The Mansure Army ( ota, عساكر منصورهٔ محمديه, ''Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye'', "The Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad") was an ''ocak'' (military unit) of the Ottoman army. It was established by who also disbanded the Janissa ...
was established, as a contemporary modern army.
Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes during
Muhammad Ali Pasha's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed the way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make the soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha.
Modern Army (1861–1918)
The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of French system to German system as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in the
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars refers to a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan States in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan States of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defe ...
and
World War I.
The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period of
Ottoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs.
Navy
The
Ottoman Navy, also known as the Ottoman Fleet, was established in the early 14th century after the empire first expanded to reach the sea in 1323 by capturing
Karamürsel, the site of the first Ottoman naval shipyard and the nucleus of the future Navy. During its long existence, it was
involved in many conflicts and signed a number of maritime treaties. At its height, the Navy
extended to the Indian Ocean, sending an
expedition to Indonesia in 1565.
For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the
Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral; literally "Captain Pasha"). This position was abolished in 1867, when it was
replaced by the Minister of the Navy ( tr, Bahriye Nazırı) and a number of
Fleet Commanders ( tr, Donanma Komutanları).
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under the
Turkish Naval Forces of the
Republic of Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
in 1923.
Aviation
The
Ottoman Aviation Squadrons were military aviation units of the
Ottoman Army and
Navy.
[Edward J. Erickson, ''Ordered To Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War'', "Appendix D The Ottoman Aviation Inspectorate and Aviation Squadrons", , p. 227.] The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to June 1909 or July 1911 depending if active duty assignment is accepted as the establishment. The organisation is sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Air Force. According to Edward J. Erickson, the very term Ottoman Air Force is a gross exaggeration and the term Osmanlı Hava Kuvvetleri (Ottoman Air Force) unfortunately is often repeated in contemporary Turkish sources.
The fleet size reached its greatest in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation squadrons had 90 airplanes. The Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as the "General Inspectorate of Air Forces" (''Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği'') on 29 July 1918. With the signing of the
Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman military aviation effectively came to an end. At the time of the armistice, the Ottoman military aviation had around 100
pilots
An aircraft pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Some other aircrew members, such as navigators or flight engineers, are also considered aviators, because they a ...
; 17 land-based
airplane companies (4 planes each); and 3
seaplane companies (4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft.
Personnel
Recruitment
In 1389 the Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town,
quarter, and village had the duty to present a fully equipped conscript at the recruiting office. The new force of irregular infantrymen, called ''
Azabs'', was used in a number of different ways. They supported the supplies to the front-line, they dug roads and built bridges. On rare occasions they were used as
cannon fodder to slow down an enemy advance. A branch of the Azabs were the
bashi-bazouk (başıbozuk). These specialized in close combat and were sometimes mounted. Recruited from the homeless, vagrants and criminals, they became notorious for their undisciplined brutality.
[mohammad nasiru din baba]
Training
Ottoman Military College
The
Ottoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army.
Ottoman Military Academy
Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed the academy in 1834 as the Mekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of Sultan
Mahmud II (), continued by his son Sultan
Abdulmejid I ().
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
Turkish Military Academy under the
Republic of Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
Imperial Naval Engineering School
The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773, when Sultan
Mustafa III
Mustafa III (; ''Muṣṭafā-yi sālis''; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his ...
's Grand Vizier and Admiral
Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha founded a naval school under the name of "Naval Engineering at
Golden Horn Naval Shipyard".
François Baron de Tott, a French officer and advisor to the Ottoman military, was appointed for the establishment of a course to provide education on
plane geometry and
navigation. The course, attended also by civilian captains of the merchant marine, took place on board a
galleon anchored at
Kasimpaşa in Istanbul and lasted three months. The temporary course turned into a continuous education on land with the establishment of "Naval Mathematical College" in February 1776. With growing numbers of cadets, the college building at the naval shipyard was extended. On 22 October 1784 the college, renamed the "Imperial Naval Engineering School" ( ota, Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn), started its three-year education courses in the new building. From 1795 on, the training was divided into navigation and
cartography for
officers of the deck, and
naval architecture and
shipbuilding for
naval engineers. In 1838 the naval school moved into its new building in Kasımpaşa. With the beginning (1839) of the
reformation efforts, the school was renamed "Naval School" ( ota, Mekteb-i Bahriye) and continued to operate in Kasımpaşa for 12 years. Then it was relocated in 1850 to Heybeliada for the last time. During the
Second Constitutional Era, an upgraded education system was adapted in 1909 from the
Royal Naval Academy.
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
Naval Academy (Turkey) under the
Republic of Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
Ranks
Classic Army
*
Aghas commanded the different branches of the military services, for example: "azap agha", "besli agha", "janissary agha", for the commanders of azaps, beslis, and janissaries, respectively. This designation was given to commanders of smaller military units, too, for instance the "bölük agha", and the "ocak agha", the commanders of a "bölük" (
company
A company, abbreviated as co., is a Legal personality, legal entity representing an association of people, whether Natural person, natural, Legal person, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common p ...
) and an "ocak" (troop) respectively.
*
Boluk-bashi was a commander of a "bölük", equivalent to the rank of
captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
.
*
Çorbacı (Turkish for "soup server") was a commander of an orta (regiment), approximately corresponding to the rank of
colonel ( tr, Albay) today. In seafaring, the term was in use for the boss of a ship's crew, a role similar to that of
boatswain.
Modern army
The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of the German Empire.
* Nefer (Private)
* Onbaşı (
Corporal)
* Çavuş (
Sergeant
Sergeant (abbreviated to Sgt. and capitalized when used as a named person's title) is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. The alternative spelling, ''serjeant'', is used in The Rifles and other uni ...
)
* Başçavuş (
Sergeant major)
*
Mülazım-ı Sani (
Second lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1 rank.
Australia
The rank of second lieutenant existed in the military forces of the Australian colonies and Australian Army until ...
)
*
Mülazım-ı Evvel (
First lieutenant)
* Yüzbaşı (Captain)
*
Kolağası
''Kolağası'' (also written as ''Kol Ağası'', ''Kol Aghasi'') was a military rank of the Ottoman Army. It corresponds to a Senior Captain (modern Turkish: ''Kıdemli Yüzbaşı'') or an Adjutant Major. Erik Jan Zürcher, ''The Unionist Factor ...
(Senior Captain or Adjutant Major)
*
Binbaşı (
Major
Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
)
* Kaymakam (
Lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colone ...
)
*
Miralay (
Colonel) – commander of a regiment (alay)
*
Mirliva – commander of a brigade (liva)
*
Ferik – commander of a division (firka)
* Birinci Ferik – commander of a corps (Kolordu)
*
Müşir (
Field marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as ...
) – commander of an army (Ordu)
Strength
Notes:
,
,
Awards and decorations
The
:Military awards and decorations of the Ottoman Empire collects the individual wards and decorations. The
Ottoman War Medal, better known as the Gallipoli Star, was instituted by the Sultan Mehmed Reshad V on 1 March 1915 for gallantry in battle. The
Iftikhar Sanayi Medal was first granted by Sultan Abdulhamid II.
Order of the Medjidie was instituted in 1851 by Sultan Abdülmecid I. The
Order of Osmanieh was created in January 1862 by Sultan Abdulaziz. This became the second highest order with the obsolescence of the
Nişan-i Iftikhar. The Order of Osmanieh ranks below the Nişan-i Imtiyaz.
See also
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Ottoman military reforms
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Turkish Armed Forces
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Turkish Land Forces
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Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
Notes
References
Bibliography and further reading
*
* Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'' (1986 and other editions), passim and 1463–1464.
*
* Erickson, Edward J. ''
Ordered to die: a history of the Ottoman army in the First World War'' (2001)
* Hall, Richard C. ed. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014)
*
*
* Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801-1922'' (2nd ed 1927
online strong on foreign policy
*
* .
* Pálosfalvi, Tamás. ''From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526'' (Brill, 2018)
*
* Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013
online* Uyar, Mesut, and Edward J. Erickson. ''A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk'' (Pleager Security International, 2009).
External links
by Lt. Col.
Edward J. Erickson
Edward J. Erickson is a retired regular U.S. Army officer at the Marine Corps University who has written widely on the Ottoman Army during World War I. He is an associate of International Research Associates, Seattle, Washington and as of Ju ...
Turkey in World War I
{{DEFAULTSORT:Military of the Ottoman Empire
sv:Osmanska riket#Militär