Ottoman Baroque architecture was a period in
Ottoman architecture
Ottoman architecture is the architectural style that developed under the Ottoman Empire. It first emerged in northwestern Anatolia in the late 13th century and developed from earlier Seljuk architecture, Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influen ...
in the 18th century and early 19th century which was influenced by European
Baroque architecture
Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the early 17th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means t ...
. Preceded by the changes of the
Tulip Period, the style marked a significant departure from the
classical style
Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is more or less consciously derived from the principles of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or sometimes even more specifically, from the works of the Roman architect V ...
of Ottoman architecture and introduced new decorative forms to mostly traditional Ottoman building types. The style emerged in the 1740s during the reign of
Mahmud I
Mahmud I ( ota, محمود اول, tr, I. Mahmud, 2 August 1696 13 December 1754), known as Mahmud the Hunchback, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He took over the throne after the Patrona Halil rebellion and he kept goo ...
(1730–1754) and its most important early monument was the
Nuruosmaniye Mosque completed in 1755. Later in the 18th century new building types were also introduced based on European influences. The last fully Baroque monuments, such as the
Nusretiye Mosque
Nusretiye Mosque is an ornate mosque located in Tophane district of Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1823–1826 by Sultan Mahmut II.
Historical background
The mosque was commissioned by Mahmud II and built between 1822 and 1826 in ...
, were built by
Mahmud II
Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, ...
(r. 1808–1839) in the early 19th century, but during this period new European-influenced styles were introduced and supplanted the Baroque.
Background
From the 18th century onward European influences were introduced into Ottoman architecture as the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
itself became more open to outside influences. During this period, the most predominant architectural style in
Western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
was the
Baroque
The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
. In an Ottoman context, the term “Baroque” is sometimes applied more widely to Ottoman art and architecture across the 18th century including the
Tulip Period.
In more specific terms, however, the period after the 17th century is marked by several different styles. The Ottoman or Turkish "Baroque" style emerged in its full expression during the 1740s and rapidly replaced the
style of the Tulip Period. This shift signaled the final end to the previous
classical style
Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is more or less consciously derived from the principles of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or sometimes even more specifically, from the works of the Roman architect V ...
which had dominated Ottoman architecture in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The political and cultural conditions which led to the Ottoman Baroque trace their origins in part to the Tulip Period, during the reign of
Ahmed III
Ahmed III ( ota, احمد ثالث, ''Aḥmed-i sālis'') was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687). His mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek. He was born at H ...
, when the Ottoman ruling class opened itself to
Western influence. After the Tulip Period, Ottoman architecture openly imitated European architecture, so that architectural and decorative trends in Europe were mirrored in the Ottoman Empire at the same time or after a short delay. Changes were especially evident in the ornamentation and details of new buildings rather than in their overall forms, though new building types were eventually introduced from European influences as well.
The term "Turkish Rococo", or simply "Rococo", is also used to describe the Ottoman Baroque, or parts of it, due to the similarities and influences from the French
Rococo
Rococo (, also ), less commonly Roccoco or Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and theatrical style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpted moulding, ...
style in particular, but this terminology varies from author to author.
Developments
First Baroque monuments (1740s)
The first structures to exhibit the new Baroque style are several fountains and
sebils built by elite patrons in
Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
in 1741–1742: the fountain of Nisançı Ahmed Pasha added to the southwest wall of the
Fatih Mosque cemetery, the Hacı Mehmet Emin Ağa Sebil near
Dolmabahçe, and the Sa'deddin Efendi Sebil at the Karaca Ahmet Cemetery in
Üsküdar
Üsküdar () is a large and densely populated district of Istanbul, Turkey, on the Anatolian shore of the Bosphorus. It is bordered to the north by Beykoz, to the east by Ümraniye, to the southeast by Ataşehir and to the south by Kadıköy; w ...
. The Baroque-style
Cağaloğlu Hamam in Istanbul was also built in the same year and was sponsored by
Mahmud I
Mahmud I ( ota, محمود اول, tr, I. Mahmud, 2 August 1696 13 December 1754), known as Mahmud the Hunchback, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He took over the throne after the Patrona Halil rebellion and he kept goo ...
, demonstrating that even the sultan promoted the style. The revenues of this hammam were earmarked for the
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...
(Ayasofya) Mosque, where Mahmud I built several new annexes and additions. These additions included a domed
ablutions fountain in 1740–41 that is decorated with Baroque motifs but still maintains a traditional Ottoman form overall. More indicative of the new style is the
imaret
Imaret, sometimes also known as a ''darüzziyafe'', is one of a few names used to identify the public soup kitchens built throughout the Ottoman Empire from the 14th to the 19th centuries. These public kitchens were often part of a larger complex ...
that Mahmud I added in the northeastern corner of Hagia Sophia's precinct in 1743. The imaret has an extravagantly Baroque gate which is carved with high-relief vegetal scrolls and a spiralling "swan-neck"
pediment
Pediments are gables, usually of a triangular shape.
Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the lintel, or entablature, if supported by columns. Pediments can contain an overdoor and are usually topped by hood moulds.
A pedimen ...
, flanked by marble columns with
Corinthian-like
capitals
Capital may refer to:
Common uses
* Capital city, a municipality of primary status
** List of national capital cities
* Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences
* Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used f ...
, and surmounted by wide eaves.
Godfrey Goodwin, a scholar of Ottoman architecture history, suggests that the ''
külliye'' which most clearly demonstrates the transition between the old and new styles was the
Beşir Ağa Mosque and its sebil, built in 1745 near the western perimeter of
Topkapı Palace
The Topkapı Palace ( tr, Topkapı Sarayı; ota, طوپقپو سرايى, ṭopḳapu sarāyı, lit=cannon gate palace), or the Seraglio
A seraglio, serail, seray or saray (from fa, سرای, sarāy, palace, via Turkish and Italian) i ...
. Ünver Rüstem argues that the rapidity with which the style appeared across Istanbul after 1740 and the fact that the first Baroque structures were all commissioned by high-ranking elites should be interpreted as a deliberate effort by the sultan and his court to promote the new style. Scholar
Doğan Kuban states that Baroque motifs spread gradually from one architectural element to another, progressively replacing the sharper geometric decoration of the classical era with more dynamic curved forms such as the "S" and "C" curves and eventually with even more flamboyant European Baroque elements.
File:Fatih Mosque cemetery entrance DSCF6749.jpg, Entrance to the Fatih Mosque's cemetery, with the Fountain of Nisançı Ahmed Pasha (1741–42) on the far left
File:Haci Mehmet Emin Aga Sebil complex DSCF5216.jpg, Hacı Mehmet Emin Ağa Sebil, Istanbul (1741–42)
File:Ayasofyanın osmanlı çeşmeleri arap motifli ziyaretcileride karışık, by ismail soytekinoğlu - panoramio.jpg, Fountain of Mahmud I at Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (1740–41)
File:Back Gate to Hagia Sophia - Istanbul, Turkey (12199167424).jpg, Gate to the imaret of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (1743)
File:Besir Aga Mosque DSCF4982.jpg, Beşir Ağa Mosque and sebil, Istanbul (1745)
File:Seyyid Hasan Pasha complex DSCF6029.jpg, Sebil of the Seyyid Hasan Pasha complex, Istanbul (1745)
The Nuruosmaniye complex
![Nuruosmaniye_Mosque_Mars_2013](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Nuruosmaniye_Mosque_Mars_2013.jpg)
The most important monument heralding the new Ottoman Baroque style is the
Nuruosmaniye Mosque complex, begun by Mahmud I in October 1748 and completed by his successor,
Osman III (to whom it is dedicated), in December 1755. Kuban describes it as the "most important monumental construction after the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne", marking the integration of European culture into Ottoman architecture and the rejection of the Classical Ottoman style. It also marked the first time since the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque (early 17th century) that an Ottoman sultan built his own imperial mosque complex in Istanbul, thus inaugurating the return of this tradition. Historical sources attest that the architect in charge was a
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
master carpenter named Simeon or Simon. Simeon's chief assistant was a Christian man named Kozma and the majority of the stonemasons under him were Christians as well. Both Simeon and Kozma were given robes of honour by the grand vizier at the mosque's opening ceremony. Ünver Rüstem notes this may have been the first time Christian architects were officially honoured in this fashion at the inauguration of a mosque and that it reflected the growing status of Christian craftsmen during this era.
![Nuruosmaniye Mosque Gurlitt 1912](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Nuruosmaniye_Mosque_Gurlitt_1912.jpg)
The mosque consists of a square prayer hall surmounted by a large single dome with large pendentives. The dome is one of the largest in Istanbul, measuring 25.75 meters in diameter. From the outside, the dome sits above four huge arches (one for each side of the square) pierced with many windows that provide light to the interior. The closest precedent to this design in Classical Ottoman architecture is the
Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in the
Edirnekapi neighbourhood. The projecting apse which contains the
mihrab
Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla w ...
is also comparable to the
Selimiye Mosque in
Edirne. The details and decoration of the mosque are firmly Baroque. For example, the curving
pediment
Pediments are gables, usually of a triangular shape.
Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the lintel, or entablature, if supported by columns. Pediments can contain an overdoor and are usually topped by hood moulds.
A pedimen ...
s above the exterior arches have concave flourishes at their edges, while the windows, doorways, and arches of the mosque have mixtilinear (i.e. combination of different curves) or round profiles instead of
pointed arch profiles. The central doorway of the courtyard is topped by an unusual radiating sun motif carved in stone while the other doorways have pyramidal semi-vaults which, instead of the traditional
muqarnas, are carved with many rows of
acanthus-like friezes and other motifs – a composition that is neither Ottoman nor European in style. Even more unusual is the form of the mosque's courtyard, which is
semielliptical instead of the traditional rectangular form. Inside, the mosque's prayer hall is flanked by symmetrical two-story galleries that extend outside the main perimeter of the hall. The corners of these galleries, on either side of the mihrab area, include space for the
muezzins on one side and for the sultan's loge on the other, thus dispensing with the traditional ''
müezzin mahfili
A ''dikka'' or ''dakka'' ( ar, دكة), also known in Turkish as a ''müezzin mahfili'', is a raised platform or tribune in a mosque from which the Quran is recited and where the muezzin chants or repeats in response to the imam's prayers. It i ...
'' platform in the middle of the mosque. This gallery arrangement leaves the central space unencumbered while still dissimulating the supporting piers of the dome. The most exuberant Baroque carvings, such as flutes and scroll forms, are found on the
minbar
A minbar (; sometimes romanized as ''mimber'') is a pulpit in a mosque where the imam (leader of prayers) stands to deliver sermons (, ''khutbah''). It is also used in other similar contexts, such as in a Hussainiya where the speaker sits and le ...
. The hood of the mihrab, like the semi-vaults above the exterior doorways, is carved with a mix of eclectic friezes that replace the traditional muqarnas. The mosque's stone decoration also establishes a new style of capitals that distinguishes the Ottoman Baroque: a vase or inverse bell shape, either plain or decorated, usually with small but prominent
volutes at its corners, similar to
Ionic capitals.
Like earlier imperial foundations, the mosque formed the center of a complex consisting of several buildings including a
madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...
, an imaret, a library, a royal tomb, a sebil and fountain, and an imperial pavilion (''Hünkâr Kasır''), most of which are equally Baroque. The sebil and fountain that flank the western gate of the complex have curved and flamboyant forms counterbalanced by the plain walls around them, which Goodwin calls the "epitome of the baroque" style for these features. The library in the northeastern corner is distinguished by undulating curves and a roughly elliptical interior. The tomb, which houses the remains of
Şehsuvar Sultan, has ornate
moldings and concave cornices. At the eastern corner of the mosque is an L-shaped structured which consists of a covered ramp leading to an imperial pavilion. This kind of feature first appeared in the 17th century with the
Sultan Ahmed I Mosque and was further exemplified by the ''Hünkâr Kasrı'' of the
New Mosque in
Eminönü
Eminönü is a predominantly commercial waterfront area of Istanbul within the Fatih district near the confluence of the Golden Horn with the southern entrance of the Bosphorus strait and the Sea of Marmara. It is connected to Karaköy (historic G ...
. At the Nuruosmaniye, however, this pavilion is more detailed, more prominent, and more deliberately integrated into the rest of the complex. It was used as a private lounge or reception area (
''selamlık'') for the sultan when visiting the mosque and gave him direct access to the sultan's loge inside the mosque. Because such imperial pavilions were closer to the public eye than the imperial palace, they played a role in enhancing the sultan's public presence and in staging some public ceremonies. Accordingly, the construction of imperial pavilions as part of imperial mosques aligned itself with the cultural shift taking place in the 18th century around the sultan's official displays of power, and such imperial pavilions became ever more prominent in later imperial mosques.
File:DSC04680 Istanbul - Nuruosmaniyecamii - Foto G. Dall'Orto 29-5-2006 (retouched).jpg, Mixtilinear arches in the lateral portico and windows of the mosque
File:Nuruosmaniye DSCF1178.jpg, Semi-vault above one of the mosque entrances, with Baroque friezes replacing muqarnas
File:Nuruosmaniye DSCF5235.jpg, Courtyard of the mosque
File:Nuruosmaniye Mosque 1175.jpg, Interior of the mosque
File:Nuruosmaniye minbar DSCF1243.jpg, Baroque details of the minbar inside the mosque
File:Nuruosmaniye DSCF5317.jpg, Sebil of the complex
File:Nuruosmaniye DSCF5198.jpg, Imperial pavilion: a ramp on the right leads to a private lounge connected to the mosque on the left
File:Nuruosmaniye DSCF5190.jpg, The tomb (left) and library (right) of the complex
Reign of Mustafa III
Mustafa III
Mustafa III (; ''Muṣṭafā-yi sālis''; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his ...
(r. 1757–1774), successor of Osman II and a son of Ahmed III, engaged in many building activities during his long reign. His first foundation was the
Ayazma Mosque
The Ayazma Mosque () is a mosque in the neighbourhood of Üsküdar in Istanbul, Turkey. It stands on a hillside overlooking the Bosporus, Bosphorus. It was commissioned by Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Ottoman Sultan, Sultan Mustafa III and built betwee ...
in Üsküdar in honour of
his mother
''His Mother'' is a 1912 American silent film produced by Kalem Company. It was directed by Sidney Olcott with Gene Gauntier and Jack J. Clark in the leading roles. It was one of more than a dozen films produced by the Kalem Company filmed in Ire ...
. Construction began in 1757–1758 and finished in 1760–1761. It is essentially a smaller version of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, signalling the importance of the Nuruosmaniye as a new model to emulate. It is richly decorated with Baroque carved stonework, especially in the mihrab and minbar. While the mosque is smaller than the Nuruosmaniye, it is relatively tall for its proportions, enhancing its sense of height. This trend towards height was pursued in later mosques such as the
Nusretiye Mosque
Nusretiye Mosque is an ornate mosque located in Tophane district of Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1823–1826 by Sultan Mahmut II.
Historical background
The mosque was commissioned by Mahmud II and built between 1822 and 1826 in ...
. The Ayazma Mosque differs from others mainly in the unique arrangement of its front façade, which consists of a five-arched portico reached by a wide semi-circular staircase. This arrangement is similar to another contemporary mosque built in
Aydın
Aydın ( ''EYE-din''; ; formerly named ''Güzelhisar'', Ancient and Modern Greek: Τράλλεις /''Tralleis''/) is a city in and the seat of Aydın Province in Turkey's Aegean Region. The city is located at the heart of the lower valley of B ...
in 1756, the Cihanoğlu Mosque. The latter is also an example of Baroque elements appearing outside Istanbul in the mid century. One minor detail of the Ayazma Mosque that was recurrent in the 18th century is the small birdhouse carved in stone on the exterior. Such birdhouses were made in the preceding century but in the Baroque period they become more ornate and are commonly attached to the exteriors of both religious and civil buildings.
![Istanbul_asv2020-02_img06_Laleli_Mosque](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Istanbul_asv2020-02_img06_Laleli_Mosque.jpg)
Mustafa III's own imperial mosque was built in the center of Istanbul and is known as the
Laleli Mosque
The Laleli Mosque ( tr, Laleli Camii, or Tulip Mosque) is an 18th-century Ottoman imperial mosque located in Laleli, Fatih, Istanbul, Turkey.
History
The Laleli Mosque was built by Sultan Mustafa III from 1760–1763, designed in the Ottoma ...
. Its construction began in 1760 and finished in 1764. Its architect was Mehmed Tahir Agha. Due to the sultan's personal wishes, its form is based on that of the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, consisting of a main dome supported by eight piers and four corner semi-domes, thus differing significantly from the Nuruosmaniye's design. However, unlike the Selimiye Mosque, the piers are more slender and are mostly integrated directly into the walls. The mosque's courtyard is rectangular again, leaving the Nuruosmaniye's semi-elliptical courtyard as an experiment that was not repeated. The decoration is also firmly Baroque, with Ionic-like capitals, round and mixtilinear arches, a mihrab similar to the Nuruosmaniye's, and other Baroque motifs. The result is a mosque that incorporates the visual style of the Nuruosmaniye in a more restrained way and integrates it more closely with traditional Ottoman architecture.
The Laleli Mosque is surrounded by the usual annexes: imperial pavilion, sebil, madrasa, imaret and the tomb of Mustafa III. More unique, though, is the large artificial platform on which the mosque stands. The substructure of this platform was originally used as a storehouse and is now occupied by a market. The complex also includes a caravanserai, the Çukurçeşme Han or Taş Han, which contributed to the mosque's revenues. Mustafa III also built another caravanserai, the
Büyük Yeni Han
The Büyük Yeni Han () is a large historic ''han'' (caravanserai) in Istanbul, Turkey. It was founded by Sultan Mustafa III and completed in 1764 CE (1177 AH). It is the second largest historic caravanserai in the city.
History
The ''han ...
, at around the same time (in 1764) in the city's central commercial district. It is Istanbul's second-largest caravanserai. Both caravanserais are centred around long rectangular courtyards, which was a trend for these type of buildings in this period.
The Laleli Mosque is also notable for its apparent
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
influences. The walls of the mosque's exterior and the walls of its courtyard are constructed in alternating layers of white stone and red brick. This technique was used in early Ottoman constructions but it was largely absent in the later imperial mosques of Istanbul. Along with the use of coloured marble decoration inside the mosque, this feature may have been a deliberate callback to the city's ancient Byzantine monuments. This "Byzantinising" trend was not commonplace but did occur in other monuments during the Baroque period. For example, the
Mosque of Zeyneb Sultan (Mustafa III's sister), built in 1769, exhibits an even stronger Byzantine appearance. According to Ünver Rüstem, this phenomenon may reflect a certain introspection among Ottoman architects of the time about the city's past and about the connection between Ottoman architecture and Byzantine architecture. This was abetted by the fact that some Baroque motifs evoked forms and motifs that are also found in Byzantine architecture, including the Hagia Sophia.
A sense of historical consciousness or
historicism
Historicism is an approach to explaining the existence of phenomena, especially social and cultural practices (including ideas and beliefs), by studying their history, that is, by studying the process by which they came about. The term is widely u ...
in Ottoman architecture of the time may be also evident in Mustafa III's reconstruction of the Fatih Mosque after the
1766 earthquake that partially destroyed it. The new Fatih Mosque was completed in 1771 and it neither reproduced the appearance of the original 15th-century building nor followed the contemporary Baroque style. It was instead built in a Classical Ottoman style modelled on the 16th-century Şehzade Mosque built by Sinan – whose design had in turn been repeated in major 17th-century mosques like the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque and the New Mosque. This probably indicates that contemporary builders saw the new Baroque style as inappropriate for the appearance of an ancient mosque embedded in the mythology of the city's 1453 conquest. At the same time, it showed that Sinan's architecture was associated with the Ottoman golden age and thus appeared as an appropriate model to imitate, despite the anachronism. By contrast, however, the nearby tomb of Mehmed II, which was rebuilt at the same time, is in a fully Baroque style.
File:Aydin Cihanzade mosque 4698.jpg, Cihanoğlu Mosque in Aydın
Aydın ( ''EYE-din''; ; formerly named ''Güzelhisar'', Ancient and Modern Greek: Τράλλεις /''Tralleis''/) is a city in and the seat of Aydın Province in Turkey's Aegean Region. The city is located at the heart of the lower valley of B ...
(1756)
File:Ayazma Mosque DSCF4198.jpg, Ayazma Mosque in Üsküdar (1757–1761)
File:Ayazma Mosque birdhouse DSCF4206.jpg, Example of 18th-century birdhouse on the exterior of the Ayazma Mosque
File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img07 Laleli Mosque.jpg, Interior of the Laleli Mosque
The Laleli Mosque ( tr, Laleli Camii, or Tulip Mosque) is an 18th-century Ottoman imperial mosque located in Laleli, Fatih, Istanbul, Turkey.
History
The Laleli Mosque was built by Sultan Mustafa III from 1760–1763, designed in the Ottoma ...
in Istanbul (1760–1764)
File:Laleli Mosque DSCF5992.jpg, Tomb and Sebil of the Laleli Mosque complex
File:Buyuk yeni han DSCF1375.jpg, Büyük Yeni Han
The Büyük Yeni Han () is a large historic ''han'' (caravanserai) in Istanbul, Turkey. It was founded by Sultan Mustafa III and completed in 1764 CE (1177 AH). It is the second largest historic caravanserai in the city.
History
The ''han ...
, Istanbul (1764)
File:Zeynep Sultan Camii.jpg, Zeynep Sultan Mosque, Istanbul (1769)
File:Sultan Muhammet Fatih camii (cropped).jpg, Fatih Mosque in Istanbul, rebuilt by Mustafa III (completed in 1771)
File:II. Mehmed tomb.jpg, Reconstructed tomb of Mehmed II behind the Fatih Mosque (circa 1771)
Reign of Abdülhamid I
During the reign of
Abdulhamid I
Abdülhamid or Abdul Hamid I ( ota, عبد الحميد اول, ''`Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel''; tr, Birinci Abdülhamid; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning over the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to ...
(r. 1774–1789) more foreign architects and artists arrived in Istanbul and the Baroque style was further consolidated. Abdulhamid I built the
Beylerbeyi Mosque
The Beylerbeyi Mosque (), also known as the Hamid i-Evvel Mosque (), is a mosque located in the Beylerbeyi neighbourhood in Istanbul, Turkey. It was first built in 1777–1778 by the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid I, but was later modified by Mahmud ...
(1777–1778) and Emirgan Mosque (1781–82), both located in suburbs of Istanbul on the shores of the Bosphorus, though both were modified by
Mahmud II
Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, ...
(r. 1808–1839). The Beylerbeyi Mosque is notable for being oriented towards the water: while some Istanbul mosques had been built along the waterside before, the Beylerbeyi Mosque is the first one which was clearly designed to present its main façade towards the shoreline. The mosque was intended to serve as the sultan's prayer space when he was residing in one of his palaces along the Bosphorus. The prayer hall is a traditional single-domed space, but the mosque's most innovative and influential feature is the wide two-story pavilion structure that occupies its front façade, replacing the traditional courtyard or entrance portico. This is an evolution of the imperial pavilions which were attached to the side or back of earlier mosques, taking on a more residential function as a royal apartment and forming an integrated part of the mosque's appearance. This new configuration was repeated in the design of later imperial mosques.
Abdülhamid built
his tomb as part of a charitable complex, the Hamidiye Complex, constructed between 1775 and 1780 in the Eminönü neighbourhood. The chief court architect at the time was still Mehmed Tahir Agha (as it was under Mustafa III), but his role in the design of the Hamidiye complex is not confirmed. The complex lacks a monumental congregational mosque and includes only a small mosque (''mescit''). Its main components were instead a madrasa and an imaret, along with the tomb itself and other minor structures. The design of the complex was notable for being completely integrated into the pre-existing urban fabric instead of being set apart in its own enclosure. The sultan's tomb is in Baroque style and one of its notable details is a large Qur'anic inscription band in
thuluth script that curves around the interior. Across the street from the tomb was an ornate sebil, but this was relocated near the Zeynep Sultan Mosque after 1911 when the complex was partly demolished to widen the street. The sebil is considered one of the finest examples of Baroque sebils. Its surface shows a greater degree of three-dimensional sculpting, being profusely carved with scrolls, shells, foliage, and other Baroque moldings. The decoration also demonstrates a greater Rococo tendency, such as asymmetries in the details of the motifs. These trends came to characterize Ottoman Baroque architecture in the last quarter of the 18th century. Another example of the elegant Baroque style in this period is the decorated façade and sebil of the Recai Mehmet Efendi School (1775) near the Şehzade Mosque.
File:School and sebil of Recai Mehmet Efendi DSCF3792.jpg, Recai Mehmet Efendi School and sebil, Istanbul (1775)
File:BOSPHOUR - panoramio - HALUK COMERTEL.jpg, Beylerbeyi Mosque on the Bosphorus, near Istanbul (circa 1778, with later renovations)
File:MausoleumAbdulHamid I.jpg, Tomb of Abdülhamid I in Istanbul (circa 1780)
File:Abdulhamit I sebil.jpg, Sebil of Abdülhamid I, Istanbul (circa 1780)
Reign of Selim III
Selim III
Selim III ( ota, سليم ثالث, Selim-i sâlis; tr, III. Selim; was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, the Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa ...
(r. 1789–1807) was responsible for rebuilding the
Eyüp Sultan Mosque between 1798 and 1800. This mosque is located next to the tomb of
Abu Ayyub al-Ansari
Abu Ayyub al-Ansari ( ar, أبو أيوب الأنصاري, Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī, tr, Ebu Eyyûb el-Ensarî, died c. 674) — born Khalid ibn Zayd ibn Kulayb ibn Tha'laba ( ar, خالد ابن زيد ابن كُليب ابن ثعلبه, Kh ...
, an important Islamic religious site in the area of Istanbul originally built by Mehmed II. The new mosque made use of the Classical Ottoman tradition by following the octagonal baldaquin design, similar to the
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque in the Azapkapı neighbourhood, but much of its decoration is in the contemporary Baroque style. Only the minarets, dating from the reign of Ahmet III, remain from the previous mosque. In 1804 Selim III also rebuilt the
Emir Sultan Mosque
The Emir Sultan Mosque ( tr, Emir Sultan Camii) is in Bursa, Turkey. First built in the 15th century, it was rebuilt in 1804 for the Ottoman sultan Selim III, and rebuilt again in 1868, the plan of the mosque changing slightly with each rebuild.
...
in
Bursa
( grc-gre, Προῦσα, Proûsa, Latin: Prusa, ota, بورسه, Arabic:بورصة) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the ...
after it was damaged by an earthquake (though the new mosque was in turn damaged during the
1855 earthquake). The previous Emir Sultan Mosque's foundations and some of its materials were reused in construction, resulting in a work that mixes archaic and Baroque elements.
Other important Baroque monuments were also built in the
Eyüp
Eyüp () or Eyüpsultan is a district of the city of Istanbul, Turkey. The district extends from the Golden Horn all the way to the shore of the Black Sea. Eyüp is also the name of a prominent neighborhood and former village in the district, lo ...
neighbourhood around this time by Selim III's family. Before the reconstruction of the mosque,
Mihrişah Sultan (Selim III's mother), built a
charitable complex nearby in a vibrant Baroque style. Its construction took place between 1792 and 1796. It consists of a large imaret (still functioning today) and a mektep (primary school), but from the street its most visible elements are the tomb and sebil. This urban configuration is similar to the earlier Hamidiye Complex. The façade of the complex, with its vibrantly Baroque sebil and tomb, is one of the most notable exterior façade designs in Ottoman Baroque architecture. Further south, near the 16th-century
Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque
The Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque ( tr, Zal Mahmut Paşa Camii) is a 16th-century Ottoman mosque located in the Eyüp district of Istanbul, Turkey. It was designed by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan and completed in 1590.
History
The building of th ...
, the Tomb of
Şah Sultan (Selim III's sister) is another important example of a Baroque tomb from this era, built in 1800–1801. One notable detail is its use of elliptical windows above its ground-floor windows.
Selim III established a new Western-inspired building type in Ottoman architecture: the
barracks
Barracks are usually a group of long buildings built to house military personnel or laborers. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word "barraca" ("soldier's tent"), but today barracks are u ...
. The first barracks of this new tradition, the Kalyoncu Barracks in
Kasımpaşa, was built to house sailors and included an accompanying mosque. It was commissioned by admiral Cezayirli Hasan Pasha in 1783–1784, under Abdülhamid I. However, it was under Selim III that monumental barracks proliferated and became highly visible elements of the urban landscape. Most of these early barracks were wooden buildings that were later rebuilt in the 19th century. This new building type arose in conjunction with Selim III's reform attempts, the ''
Nizam-I Cedid'' ("New Order"), which among other things created a
new Western-style army. Selim III built a barracks building for his "New Artillery" regiment in Tophane, near the later site of the Nusretiye Mosque. This was destroyed by fire in 1823 and rebuilt by Mahmud II in 1824. Another barracks for artillerymen was built by Mihrişah Sultan in 1792 or 1793–1794 in
Hasköy Hasköy may refer to the following places in Turkey:
* Hasköy, Istanbul, a quarter or neighborhood of the district of Beyoğlu in Istanbul
* Hasköy, Ardahan, a village in the district of Ardahan, Ardahan Province
* Hasköy, Çınar
* Hasköy, ...
. It featured a mosque, the Humbarahane Mosque, at the center of it. The building has only partially survived to the present day. The largest barracks of the time, the
Selimiye Barracks
Selimiye Barracks ( tr, Selimiye Kışlası), also known as Scutari Barracks, is a Turkish Army barracks located in the Üsküdar district on the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey. It was originally built in 1800 by Sultan Selim III for the soldier ...
, was built in southern Üsküdar between 1800 and 1803, but were burned down by revolting
Janissaries
A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
in 1812. They were rebuilt in stone by Mahmud II between 1825 and 1828 and further expanded to their current form by Abdulmecid between 1842 and 1853.
The construction of the Selimiye Barracks was soon accompanied by the construction of the nearby
Selimiye Mosque complex between 1801 and 1805. Three men served as chief court architects during this period but the main architect may have been Foti Kalfa, a Christian master carpenter. The complex included a mosque and its usual dependencies like a mektep and a hammam. More innovatively, it also included an array of factories, shops, and modern facilities such as a printing house, all arranged to form the nucleus of a new neighbourhood with a regular grid of streets. The mosque is built in high-quality stone and in a fully Baroque style. Its design illustrates the degree of influence exerted by the earlier Beylerbeyi Mosque, as it incorporates a wide imperial pavilion that stretches across its front façade. However, the design of the imperial pavilion was further refined: the two wings of the pavilion are raised on a marble
arcade and there is space in the middle, between the two wings, where a staircase and entrance portico leads into the mosque, allowing for a more monumental entrance to be retained. The prayer hall is once again a single-domed space but the side galleries that are usually present inside earlier mosques have in this case been moved completely outside the prayer hall, along the building's exterior. The building is also notable for high-quality stone decoration, with the exterior marked by stone moldings along its many edges and sculpted keystones for its arches.
File:Михришах Валиде Султанил тюрбе.JPG, Mihrişah Sultan Complex
The Mihrişah Sultan Complex () is a ''külliye'' ( Ottoman charitable foundation) founded by Mihrişah Sultan in the late 18th century. The complex is located next to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque complex in Istanbul, Turkey. The complex's largest com ...
in Eyüp, Istanbul (1792–1796)
File:Mihrisah Sultan Complex Eyup DSCF7829.jpg, Sebil of the Mihrişah Sultan Complex, with side fountains
File:EYÜP SULTAN ÇAMİİ - panoramio (1).jpg, Eyüp Sultan Mosque in Istanbul, rebuilt by Selim III (1798–1800)
File:Eyup Mosque 2466.jpg, Eyüp Sultan Mosque interior
File:Sah Sultan Tomb DSCF9572.jpg, Tomb of Şah Sultan in Eyüp, Istanbul (1800–1801)
File:Emir Sultan Camii 7067.jpg, Emir Sultan Mosque
The Emir Sultan Mosque ( tr, Emir Sultan Camii) is in Bursa, Turkey. First built in the 15th century, it was rebuilt in 1804 for the Ottoman sultan Selim III, and rebuilt again in 1868, the plan of the mosque changing slightly with each rebuild.
...
in Bursa, rebuilt by Selim III (1804)
File:Emir Sultan Camii 7105.jpg, Tomb and courtyard of the Emir Sultan complex in Bursa
File:Selim III Mosque DSCF4462.jpg, Selimiye Mosque in Üsküdar, Istanbul (1801–1805): view of the front façade and entrance portico
File:Selim III Mosque DSCF4432.jpg, Selimiye Mosque: side view with external gallery and part of the imperial pavilion (right)
File:Istanbul Selimiye Mosque Interior 6555.jpg, Interior of Selimiye Mosque
File:Istanbul Selimiye Mosque Interior 6545.jpg, Mihrab of the Selimiye Mosque
File:Selimiye Kışlası (cropped-01).jpg, Selimiye Barracks
Selimiye Barracks ( tr, Selimiye Kışlası), also known as Scutari Barracks, is a Turkish Army barracks located in the Üsküdar district on the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey. It was originally built in 1800 by Sultan Selim III for the soldier ...
in Üsküdar, originally built by Selim III (circa 1803) but rebuilt by Mahmud II
Palace architecture in the Baroque period
Topkapı Palace
In Topkapı Palace the Ottoman sultans and their family continued to build new rooms or remodel old ones throughout the 18th century, introducing Baroque and Rococo decoration in the process. In 1752 Mahmud I restored the Sofa Kiosk (''Sofa Köşkü'') in Rococo style. This kiosk is a garden pavilion in the Fourth Court that was first begun in the late 17th century by Mustafa Pasha and then either completed or restored by Ahmet III in 1704. The Imperial Council (Divan) Hall in the Second Court of the palace was redecorated in flamboyant Baroque style by Selim III in 1792 and by Mahmud II in 1819.
Inside the Harem section, Abdulhamid I renovated the Imperial Hall (''Hünkâr Sofası''), adding among other things a Baroque wall fountain and Dutch blue-and-white tiles (although the decoration of the dome has since been restored to its late 16th-century state). The main baths of the Harem, which served the sultan and the
valide sultan (queen mother), were probably renovated by Mahmud I around 1744, providing them with their current Baroque decoration. The School of Princes was redecorated with some Baroque elements in 18th century, the most elaborate additions being the fireplaces in the School's classroom and in its private apartments. Osman III renovated the prayer room of the women's section in the Harem, providing it with a stone-carved Baroque mihrab.
The Kiosk of Osman III, completed in 1754-55, is one of the most notable additions of this era. It was built over a masonry substructure that extends behind the Imperial Hall, with a marble terrace filling the space between them. The terrace includes flowerbeds and a central water basin, while a private passage on the west side grants access between the kiosk and the palace. The terrace façade of the kiosk includes a wide undulating eave. The kiosk itself is made of wood and consists of several rooms, with the main room in the middle projecting out over the edge of the palace walls to provide wider views. Its interior is heavily decorated with Baroque and Rococo decoration, including
gilded
Gilding is a decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold over solid surfaces such as metal (most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as "gilt". Where metal is gilded, the metal below was tradi ...
carvings and ''
trompe-l'oeil'' paintings of architectural scenes.
In the area near Osman III's kiosk Abdulhamid I and Selim III later added their own lavishly-decorated Rococo apartments. The decoration here includes Baroque-style
gilt reliefs and marble fountains and fireplaces. Unlike some of the earlier domed apartments of the classical Ottoman period, they have flat wooden ceilings. A nearby upstairs apartment was also commissioned by Selim III in 1790 for his mother
Mihrişah Sultan. Designed by
Antoine Ignace Melling, it is one of the finest examples of this style in the palace. It consists of two rooms with flat ceilings decorated with Baroque-style
gold leaf
Gold leaf is gold that has been hammered into thin sheets (usually around 0.1 µm thick) by goldbeating and is often used for gilding. Gold leaf is available in a wide variety of karats and shades. The most commonly used gold is 22-kara ...
, a marble Baroque fireplace with European tiles, and Western-style landscape paintings decorating the walls.
File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img22 Topkapı Palace.jpg, Baths of the Sultan and Queen Mother, Topkapı Palace, renovated circa 1744 by Mahmud I
File:Sofa Kiosk DSCF2644.jpg, Sofa Kiosk, Topkapı Palace, restored by Mahmud I in 1752
File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img33 Topkapı Palace.jpg, Interior of Sofa Kiosk restored by Mahmud I in 1752
File:20180115 Topkapi 3001 (28382491479).jpg, Baroque decoration in the Imperial Hall in the Harem of Topkapı Palace (18th century)
File:Topkapi Palace Kiosk of Osman III DSCF0157.jpg, Partial view of the Kiosk of Osman III in the Harem of Topkapı Palace (1754–1755)
File:Mihrab of the Harem Moque, Topkapı.jpg, Mihrab of the prayer room in the Harem of Topkapı Palace, added in Osman III's restoration (1754–1757)
Other palaces
As in the preceding centuries, other palaces were built around Istanbul by the sultan and his family. Previously, the traditional Ottoman palace configuration consisted of different buildings or pavilions arranged in a group, as was the case at Topkapı Palace, the
Edirne Palace
Edirne Palace ( tr, Edirne Sarayı), or formerly New Imperial Palace ( ota, Saray-ı Cedid-i Amire) is a former palace of the Ottoman sultans in Edirne (then known in English as Adrianople), built during the era when the city was the capital of th ...
, the Kavak or Üsküdar Palace (at
Salacak
Salacak is a neighborhood in the Üsküdar municipality of Istanbul, Turkey. It is located on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, to the south of the historic center of Üsküdar.
The word ''salacak'' means "bench for washing a corpse," but the name ...
), the Tersane Palace, and others. However, at some time during the 18th century there was a transition to palaces consisting of a single block or a single large building. This trend may have been popularized by the sisters of Selim III in the late 18th century. One of his sisters,
Hadice Sultan (d. 1822), had a
grand shoreline palace at Defterdarburnu (near
Ortaköy) on the Bopshorus. In the 1790s she commissioned Antoine Ignace Melling to add a European
Neo-Classical pavilion to the palace. Along with the palace of
Beyhan
Beyhan (also: ''Beyhanı'') is a town ('' belde'') in Palu District, Elazığ Province, Turkey. and Esma Sultan on the Golden Horn, her palace may have been one of the first Ottoman palaces to consist of a single block stretching along the shoreline. Most of these palaces have not survived to the present day. Among the rare surviving examples, Baroque decoration from this period can still be seen in the Aynalıkavak Pavilion (mentioned above), which was restored by Selim III and Mahmud II. Beyond Istanbul some large palaces were built by powerful local families in different regional styles.
Late Baroque monuments under Mahmud II
The Tomb of
Nakşidil Sultan (mother of
Mahmud II
Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, ...
), built in 1818 near the Fatih Mosque complex in Istanbul, is one of the finest Ottoman Baroque tombs and one of the best examples of late Baroque monuments. Some details recall the earlier Şah Sultan Tomb, such as the elliptical windows above. It also incorporates some influence from the
Empire style, which was being introduced in Istanbul around this time. The tomb was designed by the Ottoman Armenian architect
Krikor Balian. Some of the Baroque mosques from this period feature elliptical domes, such as the small single-domed Küçük Efendi (or Fevziye) Mosque in Istanbul (1825) and the multi-domed Kapı Mosque in
Konya
Konya () is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium (), although the Seljuks also called it D ...
(1812).
The
Nusretiye Mosque
Nusretiye Mosque is an ornate mosque located in Tophane district of Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1823–1826 by Sultan Mahmut II.
Historical background
The mosque was commissioned by Mahmud II and built between 1822 and 1826 in ...
, Mahmud II's imperial mosque, was built between 1822 and 1826 at Tophane. Its name commemorates the "victory" which Mahmud II won by
destroying the Janissaries in 1826, the year of the mosque's completion. Mahmud II also built a new artillery barracks and parade ground near the mosque at the same time, replacing the barracks of Selim III which had been destroyed by the Janissaries, thus continuing Tophane's association with the age of reforms initiated by Selim III. The mosque is the first major imperial work by Krikor Balian. It is sometimes described as belonging to the Empire style, but is considered by Godfrey Goodwin and Doğan Kuban as one of the last Baroque mosques. Ünver Rüstem describes the style as moving away from the Baroque and towards an Ottoman interpretation of
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was ...
. Goodwin also describes it as the last in a line of imperial mosques that started with the Nuruosmaniye. The mosque follows the model of Selim III's imperial mosque in Üsküdar, as seen in some of its details and in the portico and double-winged imperial pavilion fronting the mosque. The mosque was innovative in other details such as the greater use of vaults and stairways, the use of wood instead of stone for elements like stairs, and in the decoration of the dome where the traditional circular Arabic inscription is replaced with a vegetal foliate motif. Despite its relatively small size the mosque's tall proportions creates a sense of height, which may the culmination of a trend that began with the Ayazma Mosque. From the outside, the mosque's most notable details are the extreme slenderness of its minarets and its two Rococo sebils which have flamboyantly undulating surfaces.
File:Konya Kapu mosque 4116.jpg, Kapı Mosque in Konya
Konya () is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium (), although the Seljuks also called it D ...
(1812)
File:Naksidil Valide Sultan Mausoleum 9293.jpg, Tomb of Nakşidil Sultan in Istanbul (1818)
File:Molla Çelebi Cami - panoramio.jpg, Nusretiye Mosque
Nusretiye Mosque is an ornate mosque located in Tophane district of Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1823–1826 by Sultan Mahmut II.
Historical background
The mosque was commissioned by Mahmud II and built between 1822 and 1826 in ...
in Tophane, Istanbul (1822–1824)
File:Mosqueofnusretiyeinistanbul.jpg, Interior of the Nusretiye Mosque
File:Central dome interior of Nusretiye Mosque.jpg, Decoration of the dome of the Nusretiye Mosque (before most recent restoration)
File:Nusretiye mosque 1530 (2).jpg, One of the sebils of the Nusretiye Mosque
File:Artillery barracks, Tophana - Lewis John F - 1838.jpg, 1830s illustration of the Tophane Barracks built by Mahmud II (with the Nusretiye Mosque behind)
Baroque and local architecture in the provinces
It was only in the 1750s that the Ottoman Baroque style began to appear outside Istanbul. The Cihanoğlu Mosque in Aydın (1756), mentioned above, is among the early examples. During the reign of Abdülhamid I two notable provincial mosques were built in Baroque style in Anatolia: the Kurşunlu Mosque in
Gülşehir
Gülşehir, formerly Aravissos and Arapsun, ancient Zoropassos (Ancient Greek: ''Ζωρόπασος''), is a town and district of Nevşehir Province in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey, in the vicinity of the Fairy Chimney valley of Göreme. A ...
(1779) and the
Çapanoğlu Mosque
The Çapanoglu Mosque is a mosque in the city of Yozgat, Turkey.
Influenced by European architectural styles, the mosque was constructed in two parts, by members of the Çapanoğlu dynasty, Çapanoglu family: the first part was constructed by Ç ...
in
Yozgat (1778, expanded in 1795). Another example during the reign of Selim III is the
Izzet Pasha Mosque in
Safranbolu
Safranbolu () is a town and district of Karabük Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is about 9 km north of the city of Karabük, north of Ankara and about 100 km south of the Black Sea coast. The town's historic names in Gr ...
(1796).
In Athens, one small mosque survives from this period: the
Dizdar Mustafa Mosque or Mosque of Tzistarakis from 1763–1764.
On the island of
Rhodes
Rhodes (; el, Ρόδος , translit=Ródos ) is the largest and the historical capital of the Dodecanese islands of Greece. Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Rhodes regional unit, which is part of the So ...
, the Sultan Mustafa Mosque, built in 1764 for Mustafa III, has a tall single-dome design that reflects the trends of 18th-century mosques in Istanbul. In
Shumen
Shumen ( bg, Шумен, also romanized as ''Shoumen'' or ''Šumen'', ) is the tenth largest city in Bulgaria and the administrative and economic capital of Shumen Province.
Etymology
The city was first mentioned as ''Šimeonis'' in 1153 by t ...
, present-day
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
, the
Sherif Halil Pasha Mosque Complex (or Tombul Mosque), built in 1744–1745, is one of the few notable constructions in the Balkan region during this period. In addition to the mosque, the complex includes a madrasa, a library, and a primary school. Its style, however, resembles more strongly that of the earlier Damat Ibrahim Pasha Mosque in
Nevşehir and its decoration recalls that of the Tulip Period.
![Khan As'ad Pasha Panorama](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Khan_As%27ad_Pasha_Panorama.jpg)
In more distant provinces in the Middle East and North Africa, local styles continued to be employed with greater independence, as they already were in the 16th and 17th centuries. In
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, internecine conflicts caused great damage to the country during the 18th century, but the cities of
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
and
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
remained prosperous commercial centers.
Damascus, the provincial capital, benefitted from the long and relatively capable governance of the
'Azm family. New palaces, caravanserais, hammams, and madrasas were built. In contrast with earlier caravanserais, which were centered around the traditional open courtyard, the multiple new caravanserais built in Damascus during this century embraced the Ottoman predilection for domes and featured domed central spaces.
The most spectacular and admired building of this kind is the
Khan As'ad Pasha (1753), whose main hall consists of nine domes supported by four central pillars.
In
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
, several rare monuments sponsored by Ottoman sultans were built in the mid-18th century, demonstrating a certain level of renewed imperial interest in this provincial capital.
The ''Takiyya Mahmudiyya'', sponsored by Mahmud I and dated to 1750, was the first Ottoman complex in Cairo to be founded by a sultan, over two and a half centuries after the conquest of the city. It consists of a madrasa and a sabil-kuttab (a combination of sebil and primary school). The style and decoration of the complex is a fusion of Ottoman and local Cairene (
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
) styles, but it does not include any elements of the new Baroque style Mahmud I was employing in Istanbul.
A slightly later imperial foundation, the Sabil-kuttab of Mustafa III in Cairo (located across from the
Mosque of Sayyida Zeinab) in 1758–1760, still demonstrates local Cairene influences but this time it incorporates some new Baroque details.
(Another sabil-kuttab founded by Mustafa III near the
Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa in 1756–1757 has not been preserved.
) Other 18th-century buildings sponsored by local elites were generally built in an Ottoman-Mamluk hybrid style, such as the
Sabil-kuttab of Abd ar-Rahman Katkhuda (1744). While Mamluk-era configurations remained predominant, Ottoman decoration was applied in highly visible ways in some local monuments, most notably in the use of Ottoman blue and white tiles, including re-used 16th-century
Iznik tiles
Iznik pottery, or Iznik ware, named after the town of İznik in western Anatolia where it was made, is a decorated ceramic that was produced from the last quarter of the 15th century until the end of the 17th century.
İznik was an established ...
imported from Istanbul.
The most influential innovation of Mahmud I's complex was the curved façade of its sabil-kuttab, a local interpretation of the curved sebil facades in Istanbul, which was repeated in subsequent sabil-kuttab designs in Cairo.
In the 19th century, under the de facto independent rule of
Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali (; born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American professional boxer and activist. Nicknamed "The Greatest", he is regarded as one of the most significant sports figures of the 20th century, a ...
and his successors, Ottoman Baroque and contemporary late Ottoman Westernizing decoration was conspicuously employed in new buildings, including the
Mosque of Muhammad Ali
The Great Mosque of Muhammad Ali Pasha or Alabaster Mosque ( ar, مسجد محمد علي; tr, Mehmet Ali Paşa Camii) is a mosque situated in the Citadel of Cairo in Egypt and was commissioned by Muhammad Ali Pasha between 1830 and 1848.
Situ ...
(1830–1848) in the
Citadel
A citadel is the core fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of "city", meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core.
In ...
and several sabil-kuttabs throughout the city.
Beyond Istanbul the greatest palaces were built by powerful local families, but they were often built in regional styles that did not follow the trends of the Ottoman capital. The
Azm Palace in Damascus, for example, was built around 1750 in a largely Damascene style.
The Azm family also had a major palace in Hama. In eastern Anatolia, near present-day
Doğubayazıt
Doğubayazıt ( ku, Bazîd, ) is a district of Ağrı Province of Turkey, and it is the easternmost district of Turkey, lying near the border with Iran. Its elevation is 1625m and its area is 2,383 km². Doğubayazıt's population in 2010 was 115 ...
, the
Ishak Pasha Palace
Ishak Pasha Palace ( tr, İshak Paşa Sarayı) is a semi-ruined palace and administrative complex located in the Doğubeyazıt district of Ağrı province of eastern Turkey.
The Ishak Pasha Palace is an Ottoman-period palace whose constructio ...
is an exceptional and flamboyant piece of architecture that mixes various local traditions including Seljuk Turkish,
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
, and
Georgian
Georgian may refer to:
Common meanings
* Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country)
** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group
** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians
**Georgian scripts, three scrip ...
. It was begun in the 17th century and generally completed by 1784.
File:Cairo, sabil di abdel katkhuda 04.JPG, Sabil-kuttab of Abd ar-Rahman Katkhuda in Cairo (1744), a blend of Ottoman and Cairene Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
styles
File:Tombul Mosque, Shumen, October 1993.jpg, Tombul (or Sherif Halil Pasha) Mosque in Shumen
Shumen ( bg, Шумен, also romanized as ''Shoumen'' or ''Šumen'', ) is the tenth largest city in Bulgaria and the administrative and economic capital of Shumen Province.
Etymology
The city was first mentioned as ''Šimeonis'' in 1153 by t ...
(1744–1745)
File:Al-Azem Palace, Damascus (دمشق), Syria - Haremlik courtyard looking northwest - PHBZ024 2016 1407 - Dumbarton Oaks.jpg, Azm Palace, Damascus (circa 1750)
File:Sabil-Kuttab of Mustafa III Cairo DSCF4218.jpg, Sabil-kuttab of Mustafa III (1758–1760), featuring some of the first Ottoman Baroque details in Cairo
File:Tzistarakis Mosque on September 27, 2021.jpg, Dizdar Mustafa (or Tzistarakis) Mosque in Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
(1763–1764)
File:Mustafa Pasha Mosque (Rhodes) 01.jpg, Remains of the Sultan Mustafa III Mosque in Rhodes
Rhodes (; el, Ρόδος , translit=Ródos ) is the largest and the historical capital of the Dodecanese islands of Greece. Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Rhodes regional unit, which is part of the So ...
(1764)
File:Çapanoğlu Mosque- 2014-02-11 14-18.JPG, Çapanoğlu Mosque
The Çapanoglu Mosque is a mosque in the city of Yozgat, Turkey.
Influenced by European architectural styles, the mosque was constructed in two parts, by members of the Çapanoğlu dynasty, Çapanoglu family: the first part was constructed by Ç ...
in Yozgat (1778, expanded in 1795)
File:04400 Yukarıtavla-Doğubayazıt-Ağrı, Turkey - panoramio (15).jpg, Ishak Pasha Palace
Ishak Pasha Palace ( tr, İshak Paşa Sarayı) is a semi-ruined palace and administrative complex located in the Doğubeyazıt district of Ağrı province of eastern Turkey.
The Ishak Pasha Palace is an Ottoman-period palace whose constructio ...
, near present-day Doğubayazıt
Doğubayazıt ( ku, Bazîd, ) is a district of Ağrı Province of Turkey, and it is the easternmost district of Turkey, lying near the border with Iran. Its elevation is 1625m and its area is 2,383 km². Doğubayazıt's population in 2010 was 115 ...
(completed around 1784)
File:İzzet Paşa Camii.jpg, Izzet Pasha Mosque in Safranbolu
Safranbolu () is a town and district of Karabük Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is about 9 km north of the city of Karabük, north of Ankara and about 100 km south of the Black Sea coast. The town's historic names in Gr ...
(1796)
File:DSC01004-1-2.jpg, Sabil of Isma'il Pasha (1828) with Baroque and late Ottoman decoration typical of 19th-century Cairo
Ottoman architecture after the Baroque
The later reign of Mahmud II also saw the introduction of the
Empire style, a
Neoclassical style which originated in France under
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
, into Ottoman architecture. This marked a trend towards increasingly direct imitation of Western styles, particularly from France. Ottoman Baroque motifs and forms continued to be used during the 19th century, but they were often employed alongside other styles. The
Tanzimat
The Tanzimat (; ota, تنظيمات, translit=Tanzimāt, lit=Reorganization, ''see'' nizām) was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. ...
reforms that began in 1839 under Abdülmecid I sought to modernize the Ottoman Empire with Western-style reforms. In the architectural realm this period resulted in the dominance of European architects and Ottoman architects with European training. Among these, the
Balians, an
Ottoman Armenian
Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equaliz ...
family, succeeded in dominating imperial architecture for much of the century. They were joined by European architects such as the
Fossati brothers
The Fossati brothers, Gaspare (7 October 1809 – 5 September 1883) and Giuseppe (1822–1891), were Swiss architects. They completed more than 50 projects in Turkey (then the Ottoman Empire) during the Tanzimat era. They belonged to the Morco ...
, William James Smith, and
Alexandre Vallaury. After the early 19th century Ottoman architecture was characterized by an eclectic architecture which mixed or borrowed from multiple styles. The Balians, for example, commonly combined Neoclassical or
Beaux-arts architecture with highly eclectic decoration. Later trends involving
Orientalist designs and Ottoman
revivalism
Revivalism may refer to:
* Christian revival, increased spiritual interest or renewal in the life of a church congregation or society, with a local, national or global effect
* Revivalism (architecture), the use of visual styles that consciously ...
, initially encouraged by European architects like Vallaury, eventually led to the
First National Architecture movement which, alongside
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau (; ) is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. The style is known by different names in different languages: in German, in Italian, in Catalan, and also known as the Modern ...
, dominated architecture in the last years of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century.
Scholarly views on the Ottoman Baroque
Scholarly attitudes towards the Ottoman Baroque and towards later Ottoman architecture have varied over time and from one author to another. Many scholars have traditionally framed post-Classical Ottoman architecture as a symbol of Ottoman decline and cultural insecurity vis-à-vis Europe, lacking merit in comparison with earlier Ottoman architecture. This attitude has been progressively revised since the later twentieth century. Turkish scholar Doğan Kuban has argued that even though it was directly influenced by the European Baroque the Ottoman Baroque reflects a local interpretation of the style that became its own distinctive indigenous style. More recent scholars like Tulay Artan and Shirine Hamadeh have argued for a more positive evaluation of the style and for a lesser emphasis on the role of Western influence. In a 2019 book Ünver Rüstem argues that 18th-century Ottoman culture and architecture should be contextualized within the attitudes of Ottoman elites at the time, who saw their empire as an integral part of Europe and adapted ideas from the West insofar as they were deemed useful, as well as contextualized within the
Early Modern trends that were taking place on a more global scale.
References
Bibliography
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ottoman Architecture
Architecture in the Ottoman Empire
18th-century architecture by style
19th-century architecture
Baroque architecture in the Ottoman Empire