Otto (, ; 1 June 181526 July 1867) was a
Bavarian prince who ruled as
King of Greece from the establishment of the monarchy on 27 May 1832, under the
Convention of London, until he was deposed on 23 October 1862.
The second son of King
Ludwig I of Bavaria, Otto ascended the newly created throne of Greece at age 17. His government was initially run by a three-man
regency council made up of Bavarian court officials. Upon reaching his majority, Otto removed the regents when they proved unpopular with the people, and he ruled as an
absolute monarch. Eventually his subjects' demands for a constitution proved overwhelming, and in the face of an armed (but bloodless) insurrection, Otto granted a constitution in 1843.
Throughout his reign Otto was unable to resolve Greece's poverty and prevent economic meddling from outside. Greek politics in this era were based on affiliations with the three
Great Powers that had guaranteed Greece's independence,
Britain,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan ar ...
and
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eigh ...
, and Otto's ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers' Greek adherents against the others, while not irritating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the British
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by Kingdom of England, English and Kingdom of Scotland, Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were foug ...
in 1850 and again in 1854, to stop Greece from attacking the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
during the
Crimean War
The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia.
Geopolitical causes of the war included t ...
, Otto's standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on
Queen Amalia, and finally in 1862 Otto was deposed while in the countryside. He died in exile in Bavaria in 1867.
Early life and ascension
Otto was born as Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria at
Schloss Mirabell in
Salzburg
Salzburg (, ; literally "Salt-Castle"; bar, Soizbuag, label=Austro-Bavarian) is the fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020, it had a population of 156,872.
The town is on the site of the Roman settlement of ''Iuvavum''. Salzburg was founded ...
(when it briefly belonged to the
Kingdom of Bavaria
The Kingdom of Bavaria (german: Königreich Bayern; ; spelled ''Baiern'' until 1825) was a German state that succeeded the former Electorate of Bavaria in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918. With the unification of Germany into the German E ...
), as the second son of Crown Prince
Ludwig of Bavaria and
Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. His father served there as the Bavarian governor-general. Through his ancestor, the Bavarian Duke
John II, Otto was a descendant of the Byzantine
imperial dynasties of
Komnenos and
Laskaris. His father was a prominent
Philhellene, and provided significant financial aid to the Greek cause during the
War of Independence
This is a list of wars of independence (also called liberation wars). These wars may or may not have been successful in achieving a goal of independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which resi ...
.
At the end of
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. The Greeks were later assisted ...
, the three Great Powers formulated the
London Protocol of 1829, which established an autonomous Greek state under the rule of a "Hereditary Christian Prince." Numerous candidates were considered for the vacant Greek throne, including the French
Duke of Nemours,
Prince Frederick of the Netherlands and Otto's uncle,
Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria. Even an Irishman named
Nicholas Macdonald Sarsfield Cod'd put himself forward, claiming descent from the Byzantine
Palaiologos
The House of Palaiologos ( Palaiologoi; grc-gre, Παλαιολόγος, pl. , female version Palaiologina; grc-gre, Παλαιολογίνα), also found in English-language literature as Palaeologus or Palaeologue, was a Byzantine Greek f ...
dynasty. Ultimately, they settled on
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and in the amended
London Protocol of 1830 made Greece into a fully independent Kingdom under his rule. Although initially enthusiastic, Leopold was discouraged by the gloomy picture of the country's stability painted by
Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece's governor, and so rejected the crown, concerns that would prove well-founded when Kapodistrias was assassinated a year later. In 1832 British Foreign Secretary
Lord Palmerston convened the
London conference
List of conferences in London (chronological):
* London Conference of 1830 guaranteed the independence of Belgium
* London Conference of 1832 convened to establish a stable government in Greece
* London Conference of 1838–1839 preceded the ...
, which offered the crown to the teenage Prince Otto, which he happily accepted. The Bavarian
House of Wittelsbach had no connections to ruling dynasties of any of the Great Powers, and so was a neutral choice with which they were all satisfied. The Greeks were not consulted, but Greece was in chaos and no group or individual could claim to represent it anyway.
The Great Powers extracted a pledge from Otto's father to restrain him from hostile actions against the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. They also insisted that his title be "King of Greece", rather than "King of the Hellenes", because the latter would imply a claim over the millions of Greeks then still under Turkish rule. Not quite 18, the young prince arrived in Greece with 3,500 Bavarian troops (the
Bavarian Auxiliary Corps) and three Bavarian advisors aboard the British
frigate HMS ''Madagascar''. Although he did not speak Greek, he immediately endeared himself to his adopted country by adopting the Greek national costume and Hellenizing his name to "Othon" (some English sources, such as
Encyclopædia Britannica
The ( Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various ...
, call him "Otho"). Thousands lined the docks of
Nafplio to witness his arrival, including many heroes of the revolution such as
Theodoros Kolokotronis and
Alexandros Mavrokordatos. His arrival was initially enthusiastically welcomed by the Greek people as an end to the chaos of the prior years and the beginning of the rejuvenation of the Greek nation. A year later Greek poet
Panagiotis Soutsos evoked the scene in ''Leander,'' the first novel to be published in independent Greece:
Early reign
Otto's reign is usually divided into three periods:
* The years of
Regency Council: 1832–1835
* The years of
Absolute Monarchy
Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constituti ...
: 1835–1843
* The years of
Constitutional Monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies di ...
: 1843–1862
The Bavarian advisors were arrayed in a Regency Council, headed by Count
Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, who, in Bavaria as minister of finance, had recently succeeded in restoring
Bavaria
Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...
n credit, at the cost of his popularity. Von Armansperg was the President of the Privy Council and the first representative (or Prime Minister) of the new Greek government. The other members of the Regency Council were
Karl von Abel
Karl von Abel (September 17, 1788 – September 3, 1859) was a Bavarian statesman.
Born in Wetzlar, Abel was the son of a procurator at the superior Court of Justice. He studied law in Gießen from 1806-1809, and became a civil servant of Bavari ...
and
Georg Ludwig von Maurer, with whom von Armansperg often clashed. After the king reached his majority in 1835, von Armansperg was made Arch-Secretary, but was called Arch-Chancellor by the Greek press.
Britain and the
Rothschild bank, who were underwriting the Greek loans, insisted on financial stringency from Armansperg. The Greeks were soon more heavily taxed than under Ottoman rule;
as the people saw it, they had exchanged a hated
Ottoman rule for government by a foreign
bureaucracy, the "Bavarocracy" (Βαυαροκρατία).
In addition, the regency showed little respect for local customs. As a
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, Otto himself was viewed as a heretic by many pious Greeks; however, his
heirs would have to be
Orthodox, according to the terms of the 1843 Constitution.
King Otto brought his personal brewmaster with him, Herr Fuchs, a Bavarian who stayed in Greece after Otto's departure and introduced Greece to beer, under the label "
Fix
Fix or FIX may refer to:
People with the name
* Fix (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media Films
* ''Fix'' (film), a feature film by Tao Ruspoli Music
* ''Fix'' (album), 2015 album by Chris Lane
* "Fix" (Blackstreet song), 1997 song by Black ...
".
Popular heroes and leaders of the Greek Revolution, such as generals
Theodoros Kolokotronis and
Yiannis Makriyiannis
Yannis Makriyannis ( el, Γιάννης Μακρυγιάννης, ''Giánnēs Makrygiánnīs''; 1797–1864), born Ioannis Triantaphyllou (, ''Iōánnēs Triantafýllou''), was a Greek merchant, military officer, politician and author, best ...
, who opposed the Bavarian-dominated regency, were charged with treason, put in jail and sentenced to death. They were later pardoned under popular pressure, while Greek judges who resisted Bavarian pressure and refused to sign the death warrants (
Anastasios Polyzoidis
Anastasios Polyzoidis ( el, Αναστάσιος Πολυζωίδης, 1802–1873) was a Greek politician and judicial official.
He was born in Melnik, Ottoman Empire (nowadays in Bulgaria), where he graduated local Greek school. From 1818 h ...
and
Georgios Tertsetis, for instance), were saluted as heroes.
Otto's early reign was also notable for his moving the capital of Greece from
Nafplion to
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh List ...
. His first task as king was to make a detailed archaeological and topographic survey of Athens. He assigned
Gustav Eduard Schaubert
Gustav Eduard Schaubert ( el, Εδουάρδος Σάουμπερτ, translit=Edouárdos Sáoumpert) 27 July 1804, Breslau, Prussia – 30 March 1860, Breslau) was a Prussian architect, who made a major contribution to the re-planning of Athens ...
and
Stamatios Kleanthis to complete this task. At that time, Athens had a population of roughly 4,000–5,000 people, located mainly in what today covers the district of
Plaka in
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh List ...
.
Athens was chosen as the Greek capital for historical and sentimental reasons, not because it was a large city. At the time, it was a town consisting of only 400 houses at the foot of the
Acropolis
An acropolis was the settlement of an upper part of an ancient Greek city, especially a citadel, and frequently a hill with precipitous sides, mainly chosen for purposes of defense. The term is typically used to refer to the Acropolis of Athens, ...
. A modern city plan was laid out, and public buildings erected. The finest legacy of this period are the buildings of the
University of Athens (1837, under the name Othonian University), the
Athens Polytechnic University
The National (Metsovian) Technical University of Athens (NTUA; el, Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο, ''National Metsovian Polytechnic''), sometimes known as Athens Polytechnic, is among the oldest higher education institution ...
(1837, under the name Royal School of Arts), the
National Gardens of Athens (1840), the
National Library of Greece
The National Library of Greece ( el, Εθνική Βιβλιοθήκη της Ελλάδος, Ethnikí Vivliothíki tis Elládos) is the main public library of Greece, located in Athens. Founded by Ioannis Kapodistrias in 1832, its mission is to ...
(1842), the
Old Royal Palace (now the Greek Parliament Building, 1843), and the
Old Parliament Building (1858). Schools and hospitals were established all over the (still small) Greek dominion. Due to the negative feelings of the Greek people toward non-Greek rule, historical attention to this aspect of his reign has been neglected.
During 1836–37, Otto visited Germany, marrying a beautiful and talented 17-year-old,
Duchess Amalia (Amelie) of Oldenburg (21 December 1818 to 20 May 1875). The wedding took place not in Greece but in
Oldenburg, on 22 November 1836; the marriage did not produce an heir, and the new queen made herself unpopular by interfering in the government and maintaining her
Lutheran
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
faith. Otto was unfaithful to his wife, and had an affair with
Jane Digby, a notorious woman his father had previously taken as a lover.
Due to his having overtly undermined the king, Armansperg was dismissed from his duties by King Otto immediately upon his return from Germany. However, despite high hopes on the part of the Greeks, the Bavarian
Rudhart
Ruthard (died 1109) was Archbishop of Mainz from 1089 to 1109, and a leading opponent of the Emperor Henry IV and his antipope Clement III (Wibert of Ravenna). He spent nearly eight years in exile because of his opposition, and played a part in th ...
was appointed chief minister, and the granting of a
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When these princip ...
was again postponed. The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek sentiment through efforts to enlarge the frontiers of his kingdom, for example by the suggested acquisition of
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cypru ...
in 1841, failed in their objective and only succeeded in embroiling him in conflict with the Great Powers.
Parties, finances and the church
Throughout his reign, King Otto found himself confronted by a recurring series of problems: partisanship of the Greeks, financial uncertainty, and ecclesiastical disputes.
Greek parties in the Othonian era were based on two factors: the political activities of the diplomatic representatives of the
Great Powers Russia, United Kingdom and France and the affiliation of Greek political figures with these diplomats.
According to
Richard Clogg, the financial uncertainty of the Othonian monarchy was the result of
# Greece's poverty;
# the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of wealthy "primates" like the
Mavromichalis family of
Mani; and,
# the promise of 60,000,000 francs in loans from the Great Powers, which kept these nations involved in Greek internal affairs and the Crown constantly seeking to please one or the other power to ensure the flow of funds.
The political machinations of the Great Powers were personified in their three legates in Athens: the French
Theobald Piscatory
Théobald Émile Arcambal-Piscatory (6 April 1800, Paris – 18 November 1870, Paris) was a French statesman and diplomat.
Life
Early life
The son of François Hyacinthe Arcambal (an employee of the French ministry of war) and of Thér ...
, the Russian
Gabriel Catacazy
Gavriil Antonovich Katakazi (russian: Гавриил Антонович Катакази, el, Γαβριήλ Κατακάζης; 17 July 1794 – 25 April 1867) was a Russian diplomat and Active Privy Councillor, also notable as the father of Kon ...
, and the English
Edmund Lyons. They informed their home governments on the activities of the Greeks, while serving as advisers to their respective allied parties within Greece.
Otto pursued policies such as balancing power among all the parties and sharing offices among the parties, ostensibly to reduce the power of the parties while trying to bring a pro-Othon party into being. The parties, however, became the entree into government power and financial stability.
The effect of his (and his advisors') policies was to make the Great Powers' parties more powerful, not less. The Great Powers did not support curtailing Otto's increasing absolutism, however, which resulted in a near permanent conflict between Otto's absolute monarchy and the power bases of his Greek subjects.
Otto found himself confronted by a number of intractable