Otto Kretschmer

Otto Kretschmer (1 May 1912 – 5 August 1998) was a German naval officer and submariner in World War II and the Cold War.

From September 1939 until his capture in March 1941 he sank 44 ships, including one warship, a total of 274,333 tons. For this he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords, among other awards. He earned the nickname "Silent Otto", both for his successful use of the "silent running" capability of U-boats and for his reluctance to transmit radio messages during patrols. After the war he served in the German Federal Navy, from which he retired in 1970 with the flag rank of commodore.

Early life and career

Kretschmer was born in Heidau near Neisse on 1 May 1912 to Friedrich Wilhelm Otto and Alice (née Herbig) Kretschmer. His father was a teacher at the local ''Volkschule'' (primary school), which Otto attended from 1918 to 1921. He then moved to a ''Realgymnasium'' (secondary school). In the aftermath of World War I the Kretschmer family remained aloof from the political turbulence of the Weimar era. Kretschmer indulged in sporting pastimes and scientific interests. Kretschmer achieved good results in mathematics and chemistry and passed his ''Abitur'' (school-leaving certificate) at 17. The report contained the remark, "Kretschmer demonstrated his extraordinary courage in many instances. He wants to be a naval officer." Kretschmer was too young to enlist at 17 and his father sent him to England to broaden his horizons. He enrolled at Exeter University (then University College of the South West of England) and studied under Professor Jacob Wilhelm Schopp (b. 1871), a German–born naturalised Briton. He mastered the English language and came to respect British education: its practical focus complemented his scientific and theoretical–based German background. His time in England shaped his view of them during the war; he was quick to believe in rumours of new British inventions during the war at sea. He returned home upon his mother's death from tetanus in a medical malpractice incident. He did not return to England from his hiatus, but travelled through France, Switzerland and Italy.

''Reichsmarine''

Kretschmer entered the ''Reichsmarine'' (Weimar Navy) on 1 April 1930 as ''See Offizier Anwärter'' (naval officer cadet). Kretschmer formed part of "Crew 30" (the incoming class of 1930), 78–strong intake of officer candidates. He underwent basic military training in the 2nd department of the standing ship division of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund (1 April 1930 – 30 June 1930). Kretschmer was transferred to the training ship ''Niobe'' (1 July 1930 – 9 October 1930), attaining the rank of ''Seekadett'' (cadet) on 9 October 1930 before embarking on a 14-month stay on board the cruiser ''Emden'' (10 October 1930 – 4 January 1932), which took him to the Far East through the Mediterranean and Suez canal. The ''Emden'' made stops in Ceylon, the Philippines, China and Japan; then Guam, South Africa, Angola and Spain on the return journey. A month after the ''Emdens return to Wilhelmshaven on 2 December 1931, Kretschmer and his crew mates were promoted to the rank of ''Fähnrich zur See'' (midshipman) on 1 January 1932.

Following his journey on ''Emden'', Kretschmer attended a naval infantry course for cadets at Stralsund (5 January–31 March 1932), before starting with the main cadet course at the Naval Academy Mürwik on 1 April 1932, including his first U-boat course at Mürwik (25 September – 1 October 1933). On 2 October 1933, Kretschmer was transferred to the pocket battleship as a gunnery officer during a trip to Denmark. This stay was interrupted for an aerial defense training course at Warnemünde (5–10 March 1934). On 19 March 1934, his stay on ''Deutschland'' ended and he was transferred to the light cruiser (20 March – 26 September 1934). Kretschmer was present for gunnery exercises in the North and Baltic Sea. At Eckernförde on the 25/26 July 1934 Hitler boarded the ship to observe the exercise. During this assignment, Kretschmer was promoted to ''Oberfähnrich zur See'' (Senior Midshipman) on 1 April 1934. During another torpedo training course at Flensburg-Mürwik (27 September – 21 December 1934), Kretschmer received his commission as ''Leutnant zur See'' (Junior Sub-Lieutenant/Ensign) on 1 October 1934. On 22 December 1934, Kretschmer was again on ''Köln'' serving as the ship's second torpedo officer.

''Kriegsmarine''

In 1933 Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. The establishment of the ''Wehrmacht'' (Nazi German Armed Forces) in 1935 divided the major branches of the armed forces. The ''Reichsmarine'' was renamed the ''Kriegsmarine'', a Nazi creation. The OKM was established as the supreme command of the navy responsible for all facets of naval warfare. The renaming of the navy was a symbolic gesture, to erase the unpleasant memories of the 1920s and symbolise a new era. According to one historian, Kretschmer was a patriot and loyal to the government, but later "eschewed Nazi efforts to glorify his success through propaganda."

During Kretschmer's stay on ''Köln'', he attended an aircraft catapult course at Travemünde. On 26 September 1935, he was transferred to the 1st department of the standing ship division of the North Sea in Wilhelmshaven where he served as a company officer until 25 January 1936. Kretschmer joined the U-boat service in January 1936. After the completion of his submariner training he was promoted to ''Oberleutnant zur See'' (senior-sub lieutenant/Lieutenant Junior Grade) on 1 June 1936. Kretschmer's first operational experience on a submarine was as a lieutenant on the in 1937 as first watch officer under the command of Klaus Ewerth and then Hans-Rudolf Rösing. Rösing brought his own watch officer, and Kretschmer was demoted to second watch officer. While Kretschmer was discharging his responsibilities for the operational readiness of the deck gun, Rösing dived the ship, leaving Kretschmer stranded in the freezing water. He clung to the periscope in the hope of being seen through the optics. Kretschmer was soon missed and the U-boat surfaced to find him before he succumbed to the cold.

He was given interim command of ''U-35'' in August 1937, and this appointment coincided with Germany's involvement in the Spanish Civil War. The boat was ordered to patrol the Bay of Biscay off the Spanish-French border. The crew were permitted ashore at the resort town of San Sebastián. Rösing's successor, Hermann Michahelles, was killed in a car accident and Kretschmer assumed command for two weeks. ''U-35'' returned to Germany after an uneventful patrol during which no ships were sunk. On 1 October 1937, Kretschmer took command of . Through the remaining Interwar period, Kretschmer developed his own approach to combat, which can be summarized by the phrase "one torpedo, one ship". He dispensed with the standard practice of firing salvoes of torpedoes from long distances. Kretschmer also favoured surfaced attacks as opposed to the recommended submerged engagement, listing 11 Points of Submarine Warfare:

# Efficient lookouts are of prime importance
# It is essential not simply to spot the target, but to spot it in good time
# Lone ships should be attacked on the surface with gunfire in order to save expensive torpedoes
# Survivors should be assisted when possible
# Convoys should be attacked in daylight only if it is not feasible to wait for nightfall
# Attack at night from the dark side of the convoy, so that the target is silhouetted and the submarine is in shadow
# When there is little or no moonlight, attack from the windward side (to avoid a visible white bow-wave when motoring into the wind)
# Fire one torpedo per target, not fanned salvoes
# Fire at close range
# Once an attack is launched, do not submerge except in circumstances of dire necessity. Remember that on the surface it is easier for you to spot the enemy than for the enemy to spot you
# Dive only for two hours before dawn each day, to rest the crew, sweep with sound detection equipment, etc.; otherwise, remain on the surface

The 'one torpedo, one ship' tactics implemented by Kretschmer resulted in a very effective usage of torpedoes, as each attack was designed to maximize the chances of a hit. In fact, out of 116 torpedoes fired in action, Kretschmer scored 74 hits (equivalent to a 69.8% success rate). The vast majority of Kretschmer's attacks - at least 83 - were launched on the surface.

Kretschmer was promoted to ''Kapitänleutnant'' ( Lieutenant/Lieutenant Senior Grade) on 1 June 1939.

World War II

''U-23'': Patrols 1–8

The German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 began the war in Europe. Karl Dönitz, Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote (BdU), ordered attacks on Allied shipping at sea, beginning the Battle of the Atlantic. The short range of the Type II submarine allowed for operations in the North Sea, but no further.

Kretschmer and ''U-23'' had departed from Wilhelmshaven on 25 August, one week before the start of World War II. His first patrol, with ''Oberleutnant zur See'' Adalbert Schnee as first watch officer, took ''U-23'' into the North Sea and along the coast of the Netherlands. The boat returned to Wilhelmshaven on 4 September. Further patrols took ''U-23'' around the British coast. The main area of operations were the seas and estuaries off East of England and Scotland, with mine-laying operations in the Baltic, to counter the Royal Navy Submarine Service at the end of 1939. A second patrol (9–21 September) yielded no success either. Kretschmer departed from Kiel for the third war patrol on 1 October. On 4 October 1939 he sank the coastal ship ''Glen Farg'' (). The small freighter was carrying pulp and Ferrochrome. Kretschmer waited for the crew to take to the lifeboats before destroying the ship with a torpedo. He returned to Kiel, rather than Wilhelmshaven, on 16 October. The next day, Kretschmer was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ().

The fourth patrol (1–9 November) was unsuccessful. On his fifth patrol (5–15 December) he was ordered to explore the inner waters around the Orkney Islands and engage any remaining Home Fleet units that had departed from Scapa Flow in the aftermath of Günther Prien's attack. Kretschmer targeted the Danish ''Scotia'', a on 7 December. The ship was accompanied by three other vessels, but she was darkened and the black out aroused Kretschmer's suspicions. 19 men were killed in the sinking; only two were saved. Following this patrol, he received the Iron Cross 1st Class () on 17 December.

''U-23'' departed from Kiel on 8 January 1940 for its sixth war patrol and Schnee had been replaced by ''Oberleutnant zur See'' Hans-Dietrich von Tiesenhausen. The Norwegian ''Fredville'', only was sunk on 11 January 1940 without warning. The single torpedo attack killed 11 men. Only five sailors survived. Kretschmer's next success came in the Inganess Bay, Kirkwall, where he attacked and sank the Danish tanker ''Danmark'' on 12 January 1940 while she lay at anchor. There were no deaths among the crew. Kretschmer returned to Wilhelmshaven on 15 January. Three days later he departed for his seventh war patrol. Another neutral Scandinavian ship was sunk. The Norwegian ''Varild'' was sunk east of the Shetland Islands. The attack was conducted with no warning, and consequently all 15 crewmen died. ''U-23'' returned to port on 29 January. He departed from Wilhelmshaven for his eighth war patrol on 9 February.

On 18 February, Kretschmer sank the 1,300 ton British fleet destroyer off the Pentland Firth while she was escorting convoy HN 12 from Norway. The destroyer crew lifted the black-out curtains, making the attack easy. A single torpedo was fired, then Kretschmer ordered a u-turn and sped away on the surface; the destroyers neither sighted him nor detected him with ASDIC. Kretschmer sighted the British submarine soon afterwards, and fired a second torpedo which missed. ''Thistle'' was sunk weeks later by ''U-4''. 157 of the ''Daring'' crew were killed, including Commander Sydney Cooper. Only five survived. The next day, he sank , , in the Moray Firth. All 33 men aboard died. ''Loch Maddy''
, , was sunk on 22 February. The ship had been torpedoed by ''U-57'' and abandoned. Kretschmer returned to Wilhelmshaven on 25 February after 17 days at sea—his longest to date.

''U-99'': Battle of the Atlantic

On 2 April 1940, after eight patrols on ''U-23'', Kretschmer was ordered to the Germaniawerft, the shipbuilding works in Kiel, for construction training of the new Type VIIB . He commissioned ''U-99'' on 18 April 1940 which was part of the 7th U-boat Flotilla. After two months' training and shakedown manoeuvres in German waters, Kretschmer took the boat into action on 18 June 1940. On 21 June, his ninth patrol, his boat was damaged by an Arado Ar 196 floatplane from in the belief ''U-99'' was a British submarine. ''U-99''s first patrol ended in Wilhelmshaven on 25 June.

During ''U-99''s first four patrols, Kretschmer commenced attacking convoys at night on the surface, sinking merchant ships with highly accurate shots, using only one torpedo per target ship; the quote "one torpedo ... one ship" is attributed to Kretschmer around this time. His particularly brazen and risky innovation was to execute these night surface attacks inside the convoy. Admiral Sir George Creasy considered the manoeuvre so dangerous he thought it had been done by mistake. Kretschmer's tenth patrol (27 June–21 July) yielded over . After sinking '' Magog''—the submarine's first victim—Kretschmer gave the crew a bottle of brandy and directions to Ireland. Acts of compassion in submarine warfare were "selective and fickle", one historian wrote when describing Kretschmer's rescue of a lone man in a raft. Haunted by him, Kretschmer ordered the boat to backtrack until the survivor was found. They provided clothes and alcohol, then transferred him to a lifeboat at the first opportunity.

Among the victims was the Estonian ship, ''Merisaar'', . Kretschmer captured the vessel, the only such ship seized by ''U-99''. The crew abandoned ship and were questioned by Kretschmer. The German crew failed to sink the stationary vessel with torpedoes while the weather ruled out the use of the gun. A prize crew boarded to sail it to Bordeaux. The ship did not reach port. German aircraft bombed and sank it three days later. Kretschmer docked in Lorient on 21 July. The BdU acquired new bases along the French Atlantic coast after the Battle of France. A notable failure on the patrol occurred in the interception of HMS ''Manistee''. Kretschmer attempted to sink the ship with gunfire, but return fire and the appearance of an aircraft forced him to submerge. Under water ''U-99'' had no chance of catching her.

Four days later Kretschmer began his eleventh patrol which concluded on 5 August. This third patrol on ''U-99'', took the boat into the North Atlantic, into the North Channel and west of Ireland. He sank four ships and damaged three. His greatest success was the sinking of ''Auckland Star'', a ship on 28 July followed by another two totalling on 29 and 31 July. Kretschmer was guided onto convoy OB-191. The 28-ship convoy was poorly defended by a destroyer and a corvette. Kretschmer was presented with an opportunity to put his "one torpedo, one ship" mantra into practice. Kretschmer hit and sank the cargo ship ''Jersey City

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