, or as it is properly known in Japan with the honorific prefix , is a
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
traditional custom which relates closely to Western
matchmaking
Matchmaking is the process of matching two or more people together, usually for the purpose of marriage, in which case the matchmaker is also known as a marriage broker. The word is also used in the context of sporting events such as boxing, in ...
, in which a woman and a man are introduced to each other to consider the possibility of
marriage
Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognized union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and between ...
. The term is sometimes mistranslated as an "
arranged marriage" but it can be described as a meeting opportunity with more serious considerations for the future as a process of courtship. According to the
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research
The is a national research institute in Japan. It was established in 1996 through the merger of the Institute of Population Problems (1939–) and the Social Development Research Institute (1965–). It is an affiliated institution of the Ministry ...
, in 2005 it was estimated that around 6.2% of marriages in Japan are arranged via .
[Ito, Masami,]
Marriage ever-changing institution
, '' Japan Times'', November 3, 2009.
History
![Aisin-Gioro Pǔjié and Lady Hiro Saga 1937 wedding photo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Aisin-Gioro_P%C7%94ji%C3%A9_and_Lady_Hiro_Saga_1937_wedding_photo.jpg)
The practice of emerged in 16th century Japan among the
samurai
were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
classes, with the intention to form and protect strong military alliances among warlords to ensure mutual support. Later, during the
Tokugawa period
The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional ''daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characterize ...
(1603–1868), the practice of spread to other urban classes trying to emulate samurai customs. It became the practice for those seeking a union between families, and parents on both sides made all the decisions regarding marriage.
was a solemn practice and involved considerations that are not given as much weight by most
modern
Modern may refer to:
History
* Modern history
** Early Modern period
** Late Modern period
*** 18th century
*** 19th century
*** 20th century
** Contemporary history
* Moderns, a faction of Freemasonry that existed in the 18th century
Phil ...
Japanese people
The are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Japanese archipelago."人類学上は,旧石器時代あるいは縄文時代以来,現在の北海道〜沖縄諸島(南西諸島)に住んだ集団を祖先にもつ人々。" () Jap ...
, such as family bloodlines and class. Nowadays, this type of is usually seen portrayed more in films and television dramas.
After the
Pacific War, the trend was to abandon the restrictive arranged-meetings system. In the 1930s and 40s, practices accounted for 69% of marriages in Japan; by 2010 the figure had dropped to 5.2%. Modern forms of are still practiced in Japan today by various marriage agencies; however, practices such as or 'spouse hunting' have also emerged as alternatives to for many single people who struggle to find a marriage partner, but might not want to go through a matchmaker. There have also been accounts of how parents pressure their unmarried children into arranged meetings that eventually lead to marriages, particularly with children who would assume family responsibilities such as those inheriting a family business.
In 2014, Japanese prime minister
Shinzo Abe
Shinzo Abe ( ; ja, 安倍 晋三, Hepburn: , ; 21 September 1954 – 8 July 2022) was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan and President of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) from 2006 to 2007 and again from 2012 to 20 ...
set aside ¥3 billion to help with and matchmaking efforts within Japan, as part of the Japanese governments efforts to increase the declining birth rate in Japan.
Historically, signified that the parties were brought together expressly for the purpose of marriage on the initiative of the parents, a friend of the family, or a go-between. It also meant that the initial criteria of selection were objective ones.
[ Dore, Ronald Philip. ''City Life in Japan: A Study of a Tokyo Ward''. Richmond, Surrey: Japan Library, 1999.] The potential spouse and their family met with the go-between () and examined all eligible persons. The often had photographs of candidates and a , a small personal history.
The frequently included the name, age, health, education, occupation and marital status of all members of the candidate's family.
The families then sat down with the and screened the portfolios to eliminate any obviously inappropriate candidates.
[Blood, Robert O. ''Love Match and Arranged Marriage; a Tokyo-Detroit Comparison''. New York, Free Press, 1967.] The photographs and were then brought to the home of the potential spouse's family for the son or daughter to scrutinize. The participant and their family examined the photos and short personal histories based on an investigation of social consideration. The education level and occupations of the potential candidate's family were historically the first aspects taken into consideration at that meeting.
[Edwards, Walter Drew. ''Modern Japan Through its Weddings: Gender, Person, and Society in Ritual Portrayal''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1989.] The potential mate and their mother then created a list of primary choices and asked the to investigate the first choice.
[Applbaum, Kalman D. "Marriage with the Proper Stranger: Arranged Marriage in Metropolitan Japan." ''Ethnology'' 34.1 (1995): 37-51.]
In more selective , the candidates and their families were judged on a larger set of criteria aimed at determining the suitability and the balance of the marriage. These criteria are formally known in Japan as . They included level of education, income, occupation, physical attractiveness, religion, social standing, and hobbies. The participant's also played a large role. Many were fearful of the possibility that a potential candidate's blood was contaminated with diseases such as epilepsy, neurosis, or mental illness. The fear was so prevalent that the Eugenic Protection Law of 1948 was passed to legalize sterilization and abortion for people with a history of mental defects and other hereditary diseases. Social status also played a large role in selecting a candidate. Ideally, paired candidates and their families would be of equal social status, so some candidates had a hard time finding a mate if their family was not of a certain social status. Family lineage also affected the quality of candidates historically; for example, a candidate with samurai blood was more likely to be picked than one with ancestry from a different class, especially during the Tokugawa era.
Historically, marriage was criticized for promoting patriarchal relationships with traditional power structures and distinct divisions of labor between males and females.
Investigation
The provided, and still provides, a substantial amount of information regarding each candidate. The family researched the family lineage () of each candidate provided by the once the preliminary list had been constructed. Vast differences in between the two families would be cause of embarrassment when the two sides met.
One method of investigation in urban Japan was through a , or detective agency. In rural areas, a common investigative method was to personally ask about the family of interest by questioning shopkeepers and neighbors through ("inquiry of mouth").
More recently, the would gather information about the family in question by asking around and comparing responses through or ("inquire variously and compare"). If all criteria were acceptable, the matchmaker arranged an interview for a .
Introduction
Before the occurred, the parties scrutinized each other's pictures to prevent future rejection,
[Hendry, Joy. ''Understanding Japanese society''. London; New York: Routledge Curzon 3rd ed., 2003.] something which still occurs through online -based services in Japan today. Although candidates rely on their photographs and resumes () in the modern process, an older custom known as (hidden look) was once employed. occurred when a potential male candidate attempted to catch a glimpse of the female in secret. The objective of the was to prevent embarrassing denials based on appearances.
The was, and still is, a casual meeting between the potential couple, though historically the and the parents of both parties would be present also. Historically the determined the place and format of the meeting.
Historically, the was an opportunity for the parents to survey the bride/groom as well as the couple themselves. The meeting began with an informal introduction between the two families by the . The introduction was often followed by small talk between the parents. Occasionally, the conversation shifted to one of the potential candidates. Toward the end of the meeting, the potential couple were often advised to go off to spend some time alone, in order to get better acquainted.
(excuse, apology, refusal)
If the initial introduction was successful, the potential couple went through a series of dates until a decision was reached. The decision was usually expressed at the couple's third meeting. If the potential couple chose to marry, they went through a formal marriage process known as ,
["Omiai and Miai-gekkon, Arranged Marriages in Japan." Hanami Web. 2007. 6 Nov. 2007 <>] in which a was arranged by the groom's family.
Contrastingly, there were also standard provisions to turn down an offer or proposal with relatively little loss of face for the party being refused.
Historical discrimination
Historically, there was some amount of racial, class, and genetic discrimination in the process.
Many Japan-born Koreans were discriminated against for being "half-bloods" — i.e. not of full Japanese ancestry.
Also, the
year of the Horse
''Year of the Horse'' is a 1997 American documentary film directed by Jim Jarmusch, following Neil Young and Crazy Horse on their 1996 tour. An accompanying live album by Neil Young & Crazy Horse was released in 1997. It offers a different tra ...
in the fifth cycle of the Japanese lunar calendar, — every 60th year — were thought to be bad luck.
["Japanese Calendar." japan-guide.com. 2007. 18 Oct. 2007 ] Women born during those years would often claim to have been born in the previous or following year. The belief was so widespread that in 1966, according to the ''Japan Statistical Yearbook'', the birthrate in Japan took a 26% dip.
The most widespread class discrimination is against members of the . This former outcast group was composed of descendants of workers traditionally associated with trades involving blood, death, or other undesirables; some examples being leather-workers, shoe-menders, and butchers, since shoes were too dirty to be taken into the house, and meat was in the past forbidden by the Buddhist faith.
During the
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia ...
, demotion to status was sometimes a way of punishing criminals. Today, members may be identified by the region of the city where they live or by their street address,
though it is getting increasingly rare and Japanese people's views on shoes and beef among other things have changed significantly. Historically, a would require a candidate to bring a family history to prove that they are not a member of the .
Members of the
Ainu people, an indigenous people from the
Hokkaidō region, were commonly avoided as well. Descendants of people who were exposed to the radiation from the atomic bombs dropped on
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
is the capital and the largest Cities of Japan, city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan.
It became the sole Nanban trade, port used for trade with the Portuguese and Dutch during the 16th through 19th centuries. The Hi ...
were also avoided due to perceptions regarding possible child deformities and susceptibilities to rare diseases.
Modern-day practices
Participants
Today, most processes only involve the potential partners to be married; rarely these days are the families of these candidates involved.
A still serves in the role of go-between for potential marriage partners in the process. Though a is not necessary for all , especially with modern parties. The can be a family member, friend, or as is most common now, a .
The general purpose of the , especially the traditional way of , is to provide introductions for people entering a new arrangement and to assist candidates.
[Hendry, Joy. ''Marriage in Changing Japan.'' London: Croom Helm, 1981.] The is expected to play a variety of roles throughout the process. The first is the bridging role, , in which the introduces potential candidates, and potentially their families to each other depending on requirements. The second role, which is increasingly less common in modern Japan, is as a liaison for the families to avoid direct confrontation and differences in opinions between them by serving as an intermediary for working out the details of the marriage. The is even consulted by the married couple after their wedding if they encounter problems in their married life.
Even though marriages are less common than they once were, they do still hold a place in popular media. One example is ''Wedding Bells'', a panel type game show which ran from 1993 to 1997 in Japan on TBS, that substituted for the role of the in which contestants were introduced and screened for marriage possibility.
Selection process
Historically, the initiative for the introductions often came from the parents who felt that their son or daughter was of a marriageable age (), usually in the range of 22 to 30, but had shown little or no interest in seeking a partner on their own. Most commonly now, the decision to contact a marriage agency comes directly from the person who seeks a partner, and it is usually due to their lack of opportunity to meet a suitable spouse. Unlike in Western cultures, Japanese people very rarely talk to or trust strangers, thus the or marriage agency forms the bridge as a trusted third party. At other times, the individual may ask friends or acquaintances to introduce potential spouses in a similar way.
Sometimes, parents subtly interject the phrase into casual conversation,
to imply that both parents have consented for their daughter to meet eligible men. The daughter may be unaware that her parents have suggested her availability through the use of . In exceptional circumstances, though growing increasingly rare now, some parents send a candidacy picture to a future husband or go-between without their daughter's knowledge or consent.
[Lebra, Takie Sugiyama. ''Japanese Women: Constraint and Fulfillment''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984.] In general now, though, marriage agencies performing duties only discuss introductions and registration with their clients directly, thus removing involvement of parents entirely in many cases.
In Japan, many women are stereotyped as looking for three attributes: height (specifically someone tall), high salary, and high education. This is commonly known as the "Three H's."
Attitudes
Modern attitudes toward have changed significantly. According to an estimate in 1998, between ten and thirty percent of all marriages that took place in Japan at that time were marriages.
["Tying the Knot." ''Trends in Japan''. 1998. 6 Nov. 2007 ] The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research in 2005 estimated that 6.2% of marriages in Japan were arranged,
with younger generations estimated in 1995 to be more likely to pursue marriages preceded by romantic courtship instead.
Though the Japanese term for romantic love () implies that there are no constraints against selecting individuals whom one can marry,
it is not always possible to classify a particular marriage as "love" or "arranged", as parental influence on potential spouses is present in both and "love" marriages in Japan.
In 1995, women were reported as more inclined to seek a romantic relationship than men, with the inculturation of Western ideals of true love, followed by marital and domestic bliss, at times seen as the cause for the discrepancy. Women in Japan were historically raised with the expectation that they may only find satisfaction within the home as wives and mothers, with later generations more likely to place greater emphasis on the less traditional ideals of romantic love.
Despite this, the number of Japanese women pursuing careers and other avenues of fulfillment has increased, resulting in a falling rate of marriages within Japan.
There are several methods for meeting potential spouses that differ from the structure of the . For example, or (companion) is a method young people have adopted into modern society.
["Things Japanese: Omiai and Compa." Yamasa Student Network. 2007. 7 Nov. 2007 ] occurs when groups of four or five men go out together with the same number of women to see how they all get along.
This method has become more popular among university students and younger company workers since it is highly informal and does not involve parents.
Gender and
Although current rates of marriages are fairly low, the persistence of in modern Japanese society comes as a result of challenges in meeting new people. In recent decades, some companies have started offering various services to their employees as ways of helping them find potential partners. These services include marriage counseling and personal introductions, where the employees can join a club that provides guidance and services to match them up with suitable partners.
The idea of the cutoff age is taken quite seriously,
with the tendency for women who remain unmarried past to be treated as inferior. They are often compared to Japanese Christmas cake: fresh up until the 25th of December but becoming less appetizing with every day past this date.
A newer expression replaces Christmas cake with , a dish of noodles to see out the year on the 31st,
thus creating motivation for Japanese women after the age of 25 to seek help in the form of introductions from a marriage agency.
Men possess a greater degree of choice and freedom. Previously, a man who was not married by his 30s was considered untrustworthy by colleagues and employers, who believed that such men have not been conditioned to learn the fundamental principles of co-operation and responsibility.
For males, marriage also makes an implicit statement about staying in the family business.
While previously men who engaged in often occupied dominant roles within the marriage,
many of the men now registered with marriage agencies for help in finding a wife through are seeking a balanced, loving relationship with mutual love between partners.
In other countries
A similar practice to is also common in Chinese-speaking countries, known as ( zh, 相親). In China, 82% of first-tier-city dwellers had experienced , primarily due to parental pressure and a lack of opportunity to meet people of the opposite sex.
In literature
is one of the main topics of
Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's ''
The Makioka Sisters
is a novel by Japanese writer Jun'ichirō Tanizaki that was serialized from 1943 to 1948. It follows the lives of the wealthy Makioka family of Osaka from the autumn of 1936 to April 1941, focusing on the family's attempts to find a husband fo ...
'', which was published in the 1940s.
See also
*
Arranged marriage
*
Shotgun wedding
*
Matrimonial websites
*
Matchmaker
*
Culture of Japan
The culture of Japan has changed greatly over the millennia, from the country's prehistoric Jōmon period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia and other regions of the world.
Historical overview
The ances ...
References
{{Authority control
Arranged marriage
Marriage, unions and partnerships in Japan
Japanese words and phrases