is a collective term for the highest-ranking
courtesan
Courtesan, in modern usage, is a euphemism for a "kept" mistress (lover), mistress or prostitute, particularly one with wealthy, powerful, or influential clients. The term historically referred to a courtier, a person who attended the Royal cour ...
s in
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese history, who were considered to be above common
prostitutes
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, non-penet ...
(known as ) for their more refined entertainment skills and training in the traditional arts. Divided into a number of ranks within this category, the highest rank of were the , who were considered to be set apart from other due to their intensive training in the traditional arts.
Though by definition also engaged in prostitution, higher-ranking had a degree of choice in which customers they took; , in contrast, did not engage in sex work at all.
The term originated in
Yoshiwara
was a famous (red-light district) in Edo, present-day Tokyo, Japan. Established in 1617, Yoshiwara was one of three licensed and well-known red-light districts created during the early 17th century by the Tokugawa shogunate, alongside Shima ...
, the
red light district
A red-light district or pleasure district is a part of an urban area where a concentration of prostitution and sex-oriented businesses, such as sex shops, strip clubs, and adult theaters, are found. In most cases, red-light districts are partic ...
of
Edo in the 1750s, and is applied to all ranks of high level courtesans in historical Japan.
The services of were well known for being exclusive and expensive, with typically only entertaining the upper classes of society, gaining the nickname for their perceived ability to steal the hearts and match the wits of upper-class men. Many became celebrities both inside and outside of the pleasure quarters, and were commonly depicted in
ukiyo-e
Ukiyo-e is a genre of Japanese art which flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surfac ...
woodblock prints and in
kabuki
is a classical form of Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily-stylised performances, the often-glamorous costumes worn by performers, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers.
Kabuki is thought to ...
theatre plays. were expected to be well versed in the traditional arts of singing, classical dance and music, including the ability to play the and the
koto
Koto may refer to:
* Koto (band), an Italian synth pop group
* Koto (instrument), a Japanese musical instrument
* Koto (kana), a ligature of two Japanese katakana
* Koto (traditional clothing), a traditional dress made by Afro-Surinamese women
* K ...
, and were also expected to converse with clients in upper class and formalised language.
Though regarded as trend setting and fashionable women at the historic height of their profession, this reputation was later usurped in the late 18th through 19th centuries by
geisha
{{Culture of Japan, Traditions, Geisha
{{nihongo, Geisha, 芸者 ({{IPAc-en, ˈ, ɡ, eɪ, ʃ, ə; {{IPA-ja, ɡeːɕa, lang), also known as {{nihongo, , 芸子, geiko (in Kyoto and Kanazawa) or {{nihongo, , 芸妓, geigi, are a class of female ...
, who became popular among the
merchant classes for their simplified
clothing
Clothing (also known as clothes, apparel, and attire) are items worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural ...
, ability to play short, modern songs known as on the , and their more fashionable expressions of contemporary womanhood and companionship for men,
which mirrored the tastes of the extremely wealthy, but for lower class merchants, who constituted the majority of their patronage.
The popularity and numbers of continued to decline steadily throughout the 19th century, before prostitution was
outlawed in Japan in 1957. However, the remaining in
Kyoto
Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the ci ...
's
Shimabara district were allowed to continue practising the cultural and performing arts traditions of their profession, and were declared a "special variety" of geisha. In the present day, a handful of , who do not engage in prostitution as part of their role, continue to perform in Kyoto, alongside a number of reenactors elsewhere in Japan who perform in reenactments of the courtesan parades known as .
Etymology
The word comes from the Japanese phrase which translates loosely to "the lass at our (my) place." When written in
kanji
are the logographic Chinese characters taken from the Chinese family of scripts, Chinese script and used in the writing of Japanese language, Japanese. They were made a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese ...
, the word consists of two characters: , meaning "flower", and meaning "leader" or "first." Though only the highest ranking prostitutes of Yoshiwara were technically known as , the term is now widely applied to all.
Traditions
Traditional arts
Compared to , whose primary attraction was the sexual services they offered, , and particularly , were first and foremost entertainers. In order to become an , a woman first had to be educated in a range of skills from a relatively young age, including (
Japanese tea ceremony
The Japanese tea ceremony (known as or ) is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of , powdered green tea, the procedure of which is called . While in the West it is known as "tea ceremony", it is se ...
), (flower arranging) and
calligraphy
Calligraphy (from el, link=y, καλλιγραφία) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instrument. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "t ...
. also learned to play the , , (hand drum), and . Clients expected to be well read, able to converse and write with wit and elegance, and able to match them in intellect in conversation.
Names
Within the pleasure quarters, an 's prestige was based on her beauty, character, education and artistic ability, which was reflected in the number of ranks falling in the category of . An , unlike geisha or common prostitutes, could be promoted or demoted by the owner of her brothel, and commonly inherited a upon gaining promotion to a higher rank; these names, exclusively the property of the brothel owner, typically carried the prestige of the person who held it previously, and brothel owners commonly chose only those of similar countenance and reputation to inherit them. were written in kanji, and were typically more elaborate than the average woman's name of the time, holding meanings taken from poetry, literary history and nature; were rarely passed from one directly down to their apprentice.
not considered to be high ranking or skilled enough to hold an inherited name would instead use a professional name considered elegant enough to be the name of a courtesan; these were typically pseudonyms taken to either protect one's identity or to promote the brothel's image, and were likely to be slightly more elaborate than the average woman's name. These names, alongside the names of both and (child attendants and apprentice courtesans respectively) were written in
hiragana
is a Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with ''katakana'' as well as ''kanji''.
It is a phonetic lettering system. The word ''hiragana'' literally means "flowing" or "simple" kana ("simple" originally as contrast ...
.
Appearance
The appearance of was markedly different from that of both geisha and the average woman, reflecting the upper class tastes and expectations of their customers; by the height of their profession at the beginning of the Edo period, wore upwards of eight large (hair ornaments), typically made from tortoiseshell, silver, gold and gemstones, in their large, elaborate and heavily waxed
hairstyles
A hairstyle, hairdo, haircut or coiffure refers to the styling of hair, usually on the human scalp. Sometimes, this could also mean an editing of facial or body hair. The fashioning of hair can be considered an aspect of personal grooming ...
; these hairstyles, all with different names and meanings, were worn to represent different ranks, seasons and occasions.
An 's outfit consisted of a number of layered
kimono
The is a traditional Japanese garment and the national dress of Japan. The kimono is a wrapped-front garment with square sleeves and a rectangular body, and is worn left side wrapped over right, unless the wearer is deceased. The kimono ...
; the outermost kimono would usually be a heavily-decorated silk brocade garment known as the , which would feature a heavily padded hem. Though were also worn by noblewomen and, towards the end of the Meiji period, began to be worn by some brides, the worn by were far more excessive and loud. These featured elaborate, traditional and auspicious designs, such as dragons, butterflies, arabesque rondels, pine, plum and bamboo, woven and embroidered in heavy gold and silver thread.
This would be worn unbelted over the top of the underkimono, which featured a patterned design only on the lower skirt, and resembled a (underkimono; part of kimono underwear) otherwise. The ensemble was belted with an tied at the front. During the Edo period, this became both wider and stiffer, adding weight and discomfort. became known for wearing a specific style of known as the , which presented a large, flat surface on which large designs would be decorated.
When parading or otherwise walking, wore – tall pauwlonia wood clogs with three "teeth". Though lightweight for their size, these would prevent an from taking anything other than small, slow footsteps when walking; would thus walk in with a sliding, figure of 8 () step, with two manservants (known as ) assisting her. generally did not wear socks, with her bare foot considered to be a point of eroticism in her outfit. In total, a formal parade outfit worn by an could weigh in excess of , often weighing as much as , and would require great assistance to put on.
Ranks
The highest rank of courtesan was that of , followed by .
[''Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600–1900''. Columbia University Press, 2008.] Unlike courtesans of a lower status, had sufficient prestige to refuse clients, and did not engage in sex work as a rule, unlike courtesans of lower rank. Their high status also
made the services of extremely pricey – a 's fee for one evening was between one and one , three , well beyond a labourer's monthly wage and comparable to a shop assistant's annual salary.
Though many courtesans could be registered in one area, extremely few reached status; a guidebook published in 1688 listed the contemporary numbers of high-ranking courtesans in comparison to all the courtesans listed in one area:
* 13 were registered in Shimabara out of 329 registered courtesans
* 7 were registered in Shinmachi out of 983 registered courtesans
* 3 were registered in Osaka and Yoshiwara out of 2,790 registered courtesans
A Yoshiwara guidebook published in 1792 listed the six extant ranks of , including and , who had, by the time of the guidebook's publication, been dormant, with no courtesans in these roles in Yoshiwara, for 30 years:
#
#
#
#
#
#
In 1761, the last of Yoshiwara retired, marking the end of the and ranks in that pleasure quarter, though both and continued to work in Kyoto and Osaka.
The word therefore appeared in Yoshiwara as a polite term of address for any remaining woman of courtesan rank.
History
Rise to prominence
The profession of arose in the early
Edo period
The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
(1600–1868), following the introduction of laws restricting brothels to bounded pleasure quarters known as in roughly 1600, sometimes restricting brothels to literal walled-in districts. These quarters were often placed at some distance from the centre of the attached town or city, and the legal status and location of these districts changed on a number of occasions throughout the following centuries; on occasion, some were closed and their inhabitants either sent to live or work in another, larger red light district.
The three best-known districts historically were Shimabara in Kyoto (which also housed geisha until the 1970s),
Shinmachi
Shinmachi (新町) was a in Osaka, built between 1615 and 1623, and operating until its destruction in World War II. It was situated roughly two kilometers southwest of Nakanoshima. Today, it is mostly a tourist attraction and historical site.
T ...
in
Osaka
is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of 2. ...
and Yoshiwara in Edo (present day
Tokyo
Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.468 ...
). Over time, these districts rapidly grew into large and self contained neighbourhoods, containing a number of different forms of entertainment outside of prostitution including performances and festivals. Geisha – whose profession came into existence in the late 18th century – also occasionally worked within these districts, as edicts passed at various times restricted them from working outside of officially designated red light areas.
Outside of their physical presentation, the traditional aesthetics of the and their attire bled into other aspects of the Edo period; within Yoshiwara, eventually became the main source of entertainment, performing and entertaining at parties for guests. Scholar Jonathan Clements emphasised the striking presence of the outside of their quarters, where a parading 's slow movements, brightly-coloured and layered clothing, and lacquered hair provided a source of titillation for "the implications of Edo life
o be
O, or o, is the fifteenth letter and the fourth vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''o'' (pronounced ), pl ...
so devoid of women." As a larger than life figure, historical accounts of the oiran recall the transferral of respectable house names as tangible products for potential clients, as well as signifiers of rank for established providers. This resulted in a widespread desire for anonymity for the mostly male population within Yoshiwara. Specialized products, such as hats, medicinal intervention, and the newly developed medium of kabuki encompassed the centricity of the red-light district economy, while also supporting anonymity of its patrons. Thus, the mythical persona for the did not only extend to physical interactions with her, but embodied one's journey through Yoshiwara itself. Outside of prostitution and the arts, the aesthetic reverence utilised to distinguish different classes of the became a vehicle for other means of aesthetic expression.
This had a profound impact on the economy, while also reflecting a point of contention between the upper and lower classes of Edo. Yoshiwara, known as "the place without night", represented one of the new places in which "high" culture was able to mingle with that of the lower classes, forging a new aesthetic environment within Edo society alongside their mingling. Another nickname for the Yoshiwara was "
ukiyo
is the Japanese term used to describe the urban lifestyle and culture, especially the pleasure-seeking aspects, of Edo period Japan (1600–1867). culture developed in Yoshiwara, the licensed red-light district of Edo (modern-day Tokyo), ...
", a Buddhist word that meant suffering world, which, when written in new characters, came to mean "floating world". This would also later influence the creation of ukiyo-e woodblock prints. Laura W. Allen, the curator of Japanese art at the Asian Art Museum describes the aesthetic intervention as "ignoring the problems that might have existed in a very strictly regulated society and abandoning yourself, bobbing along on the current of pleasure."
Decline
Because of their isolation, the rigidity of their contracts as courtesans – which often ran for 10–15 years before ending their involvement with the profession – and their inability to leave the pleasure districts, became steadily more traditional, outdated and ritualised, further and further removed from popular society and bound by their strict rules of etiquette, behaviour and speech. This, combined with their relative financial inaccessibility to most people, created a vacuum of entertainment for the rising
merchant classes, whose relatively high wealth and relatively low social status left them unable to hire , thus leading to the decision to patronise the greatly more accessible and less expensive geisha instead.
Over time, also lost their celebrity status in wider society, and came in part to be seen less as highly cultured courtesans reflecting formal, high class standards of speech and appearance, and more as caged women unable to leave the pleasure districts and chained to the debts they owed to their brothel. The preservation of the appearance of had also not reflected changes in fashion – as the profession of geisha had evolved and become increasingly popular, the authorities had sought to clamp down on the profligate and wealthy tastes of the merchant classes, leading to a number of dress edicts that changed popular aesthetics and led to the rise of subdued and cultivated aesthetics such as , which categorically did not reflect or resemble.
Similarly, the entertainment that offered had mostly remained unchanged since generations of courtesans previous. Though played the , they did not play the popular and contemporary tunes composed for it, and instead stuck to longer ballads such as , which had refined, but restrained, lyrical content. This was in contrast to the favoured and sung by geisha, whose lyrical content was often heartfelt and honest.
Competition with geisha
In the years that declined, the geisha profession was born and grew increasingly stronger, contributing in part, if not in majority, to this decline.
Geisha were, officially-speaking, considered to be a relatively low-class form of entertainment, and as such, were not patronised by the upper classes, who were officially supposed to patronise instead; however, during the Edo period, geisha came to represent the tastes of the merchant classes, whose low social status and high financial freedom left them free of social obligations to uphold the status of a samurai family that men of the upper classes were commonly beholden to.
As the merchant classes throughout Edo-period society grew in wealth and profligacy, they became the main source of income for geisha, who represented social and financial accessibility in a way that did not. Geisha were cheap to patronise, informal to converse with, required few introductions before entertaining a customer and both played and sang the most popular songs of the time. Through various dress edicts aimed at controlling the merchant classes and thus preserving the appearances and social status of the upper classes, extravagant or obvious displays of wealth had been outlawed and driven underground, bringing aesthetics such as into popularity, which geisha came to both represent and champion. A geisha's loyalties were also held to be more true, as geisha could choose whom they wished to entertain, and geisha became the subject of many popular romantic stories.
Though geisha also worked within the pleasure districts that did – at times forbidden to work outside of them – as the profession developed, laws regarding the separation of the two professions were passed. This, over time, ironically led to exaggerate and exacerbate the differences between geisha and , heightening the popularity of the former and leading to the eventual destruction of the latter. Geisha were forbidden to dress elaborately, in the manner of , and were not allowed to sleep with their customers. Geisha were registered at a separate registry office, and if an accused a geisha of stealing a customer, she would be fully investigated, with the potential to be forbidden from working if found guilty.
Though geisha and were likely to be at least in part indentured to their houses, geisha were not considered to be the same kind of physical property that were considered to be by their employers. Though were unable to leave their pleasure quarters and could be, if not in the highest ranks, forced to entertain whichever customers the head of her brothel demanded she entertain, geisha were allowed to both leave their houses and choose which patrons she wished to entertain, leading to the rise of adages comparing the loyalties of an with square eggs, the punchline being that neither were things that existed.
Though many geisha went into debt or held at least some debt with their , few found themselves in the same situation of financial domination and ownership that were almost entirely bound to.
Later years (1850–1957)
Towards the end of the Edo period, continued to dwindle in popularity as the geisha grew in numbers, accessibility, and appeal. By the beginning of the
Meiji period
The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912.
The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...
, official attitudes towards legalized prostitution within Japan had changed owing to the country's increasing international presence. Towards the end of the 19th century, geisha had replaced as the entertainer and companion of choice for the wealthiest in Japanese society, with the central appeal of having grown increasingly remote from everyday life.
continued to see clients within the old pleasure quarters, but were no longer at the cutting edge of fashion, and during the years of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, when any show of luxury was heavily clamped down upon, the culture surrounding suffered even further, being dealt the final blow in 1957 by the
Anti-Prostitution Law
The (Law no. 118, May 24, 1956) is a law in Japan that aims to prevent prostitution, punish third parties involved in the trade and to protect and rehabilitate women involved in prostitution. It is also known as the 'Anti-Prostitution Law'. The l ...
– after which the profession of courtesan (excluding the performance arts of ) became illegal.
Modern and
![Kisaragi Tayu 2016](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Kisaragi_Tayu_2016.04.10.jpg)
continue to entertain in a similar manner to geisha, with fewer than five left in modern-day Kyoto. The last remaining house is located in Shimabara, which lost its official status as a for geisha in the late 20th century. However, some still recognize Shimabara as a , with the number and activities of slowly growing. The few remaining women still currently practising the arts of the , without the sexual aspect, do so as a preservation of cultural heritage rather than as a profession or lifestyle.
![Oiran 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Oiran_2.jpg)
The is an annual event held every April in
Bunsui,
Niigata Prefecture (now part of the city of
Tsubame). The parade, which takes place in spring, historically re-enacts the walk made by top courtesans around their district in honour of their guests. The modern parade features three women dressed as in full traditional attire with approximately 70 accompanying servants. The , who are named
Shinano,
Sakura
A cherry blossom, also known as Japanese cherry or sakura, is a flower of many trees of Prunus, genus ''Prunus'' or Prunus subg. Cerasus, ''Prunus'' subg. ''Cerasus''. They are common species in East Asia, including China, Korea and especia ...
, and Bunsui, walk with the distinctive slow gait of wearing . Due to the event's popularity in Japan, organizers are often inundated with applications to be part of the parade as one of the three or as a servant. is a shortened form of , it is also known as the Dream Parade of
Echigo
was an old province in north-central Japan, on the shores of the Sea of Japan. It bordered on Uzen, Iwashiro, Kōzuke, Shinano, and Etchū Provinces. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Echigo''" in . It corresponds today to Niigata ...
().
The Ōsu Street Performers' Festival is an event held around
Ōsu Kannon Temple in
Nagoya
is the largest city in the Chūbu region, the fourth-most populous city and third most populous urban area in Japan, with a population of 2.3million in 2020. Located on the Pacific coast in central Honshu, it is the capital and the most pop ...
yearly around the beginning of October. The highlight of this two-day festival is the slow procession of through the Ōsu Kannon shopping arcade. Thousands of spectators crowd the shopping streets on these days to get close enough to photograph the and their retinue of male bodyguards and entourage of apprentices (young girls in distinctive red kimono, wearing (white face paint) and loose, long black hair).
An parade is held in the Minamishinagawa district near
Aomono-Yokochō,
Shinagawa
is a special ward in Tokyo, Japan. The Ward refers to itself as Shinagawa City in English. The Ward is home to ten embassies.
, the Ward had an estimated population of 380,293 and a population density of 16,510 persons per km2. The total are ...
every September.
See also
*
Geisha
{{Culture of Japan, Traditions, Geisha
{{nihongo, Geisha, 芸者 ({{IPAc-en, ˈ, ɡ, eɪ, ʃ, ə; {{IPA-ja, ɡeːɕa, lang), also known as {{nihongo, , 芸子, geiko (in Kyoto and Kanazawa) or {{nihongo, , 芸妓, geigi, are a class of female ...
*
*
Prostitution in Japan
Prostitution in Japan has existed throughout the country's history. While the Prostitution Prevention Law of 1956 states that "No person may either do prostitution or become the customer of it", loopholes, liberal interpretations and a loose ...
*
Sing-song girls
Sing-song girls (), also known as flower girls, is an English term for the courtesans in China during the 19th century AD.
Origin
Before the founding of modern China in 1911, concubinage was legal. In Chinese custom, males carry the family name an ...
* ''
Tawaif
A ''tawaif'' was a highly successful entertainer who catered to the nobility of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Mughal Empire, Mughal era. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu l ...
''
*
Notes
References
Further reading
*
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*
*
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*
External links
Tokyo Ichiyo Sakura Festival Edo Yoshiwara Oiran ParadeYoshino Tayu Hana Kuyo. 2008.
{{Prostitution in Japan
Social history of Japan
Oiran
Oiran
Courtesans by type
Gendered occupations
Japanese culture
Society of Japan
Sexuality in Japan
Prostitution in Japan
Japanese words and phrases