Offices In The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a confederative aristocratic republic of the period 1569–1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their fiefs. The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament (Sejm) consisting of the King, the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility either in person or through the Lower Sejm (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system.

Classification

The Commonwealth's administrative system was a pre-bureaucracy. In terms of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority, it was, as with other contemporary monarchies, largely based on "traditional domination". There was, however, evidence of "rational-legal authority" in the nobility's respect for laws such as the ''Pacta conventa''.

Senatorial offices

The Privy council and Upper chamber of the First Commonwealth’s Sejm (parliament, or diet) was the ''Senat'' (now Senate), comprising Bishops, Voivode, Castellan and ministers (central officials). The list of dignitaries eligible to serve in the ''Senat'' had been finalized when, in the Union of Lublin (1569), the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transformed into the confederal state of Crown of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The most important official was the Primate, who was the Archbishop of Gniezno. From 1572, the first time that Poland had been without a king (the Jagiellon Dynasty having died out with King Zygmunt II August), the Archbishop of Gniezno served as ''interrex'', i.e., as interim head of state until a new king could be elected. He represented the country and prepared elections for a new king.

In addition, the Archbishop of Gniezno had the power to call a new ''Senat'' session, if he deemed it important to do so, even in the absence of the King. He could also invoke the "''de non praestanda obedientia''" article, giving the country the right to legally depose the King. From among other senators, he chose his own court marshal (often a Castellan). That person acted as the Archbishop's messenger during ''Senat'' meetings, giving signs (by moving a cross) that conveyed how the Archbishop wished his allies to vote. The Archbishop of Gniezno had two deputies: the bishops of Wrocław and Poznań.

Of secular Senators, the foremost was the Castellan (''Kasztelan'') of Cracow. Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes.

The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeships to the '' Senat''. They were the leaders of the Land Parliaments (''Sejmiki Wojewódzkie'', Voivodeship Sejmiks). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a ''pospolite ruszenie'' (''levée en masse''). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilnius Voivode, who were elected by (and from) the local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King).

Except for the Castellan of Cracow Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital until 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan was in charge of part of a Voivodeship (till the 15th century called a ''Castellany'', and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiats for Minor Castellans).

After 1565, the principle of "''incompatibilitas''" ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister, except for the post of Hetman. Ministers were comparable to modern central-government officials. They were 10 officials (5 for the Crown of Poland, 5 for Lithuania). The Ministers were the ''Grand Marshal of the Crown'' (''Marszałek Wielki Koronny''), ''Grand Marshal of Lithuania'' (''Marszałek Wielki Litewski''), ''Grand Chancellor of the Crown'' (''Kanclerz Wielki Koronny''), ''Grand Chancellor of Lithuania'' (''Kanclerz Wielki Litewski''), ''Vice-Chancellor of the Crown'' (''Podkanclerzy Koronny''), ''Vice-Chancellor of Lithuania'' (''Podkanclerzy Litewski''), ''Grand Treasurer of the Crown'' (''Podskarbi Wielki Koronny''), ''Grand Treasurer of Lithuania'' (''Podskarbi Wielki Litewski''), ''Court Marshal of the Crown'' (''Marszałek Nadworny Koronny'') and ''Court Marshal of Lithuania'' (''Marszałek Nadworny Litewski''). Court Marshals were considered subordinate to Grand Marshals. Lithuanian ministers, while vested with the same powers as Crown Ministers, were considered below them in precedence. Hetmans were also considered "Ministers" but had no seat in the '' Senat''.

A Marshal's duties consisted in providing security to the King and keeping order where he was present. Marshals commanded two regiments of infantry, a regiment of militia, and a special court of law with a marshal's judge (''sędzia marszałkowski''), marshal's clerk (''pisarz marszałkowski'') and '' assessor''s (singular: ''asesor''). These courts passed sentence on the spot, without possibility of appeal. For crimes such as drawing a weapon in the King's presence, the penalty was death. A Marshal's court had jurisdiction over all crimes committed against the royal court and by courtiers.

When the King traveled, Marshals supervised the local Voivodes. The Marshals decided who would be admitted to royal audience. They were the organizers and masters of royal and court ceremonies (including weddings, funerals and the like). They were the masters of the court, kept track of lesser courtiers, and (where applicable) set their salaries. Each Marshal wielded a marshal's staff, which he had received from the Chancellor (''Kanclerz''). In exchange, all Chancellor nominations were heralded by the Marshals. If no Marshal was present, his functions were carried out by a Grand Treasurer or secular Grand Chancellor. On formal occasions and during travel, where appropriate, a Marshal with his staff of office preceded the King. Close after the Marshals in the hierarchy were the Chancellors.

From 1507, the title of Grand Chancellor of the Crown was rotated between secular and ecclesiastic

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