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The Office of Defense Mobilization (ODM) was an
independent agency A regulatory agency (regulatory body, regulator) or independent agency (independent regulatory agency) is a government authority that is responsible for exercising autonomous dominion over some area of human activity in a licensing and regulati ...
of the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
government whose function was to plan, coordinate, direct and control all wartime
mobilization Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and ...
activities of the federal government, including manpower, economic stabilization, and transport operations. It was established in 1950, and for three years was one of the most powerful agencies in the federal government. It merged with other agencies in 1958 to become the
Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization The Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, created in 1958 originally as Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, was an office of the Executive Office of the President of the United States which consolidated the functions of the existing ...
(1958–1961).


Background

President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
's pre-war mobilization efforts had been resisted by
Congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of a ...
, and lacked coordination. One of the most important lessons the federal government drew from World War II was that the nation needed a permanent, rationalized mobilization apparatus. The nature of nuclear war, in which mobilization would occur in weeks rather than months, made the establishment of a mobilization structure even more imperative.Vawter, ''Industrial Mobilization: The Relevant History,'' 2002.Hogan, ''A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954,'' 1998.Kaufman, ''The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command,'' 1997. The
National Security Act of 1947 The National Security Act of 1947 ( Pub.L.br>80-253 61 Stat.br>495 enacted July 26, 1947) was a law enacting major restructuring of the United States government's military and intelligence agencies following World War II. The majority of the pro ...
established this new mobilization structure. It authorized the creation of the
National Security Council A national security council (NSC) is usually an executive branch governmental body responsible for coordinating policy on national security issues and advising chief executives on matters related to national security. An NSC is often headed by a na ...
(NSC) and the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
, merged the Departments of War (Army and Air Force) and Navy into the
Department of Defense Department of Defence or Department of Defense may refer to: Current departments of defence * Department of Defence (Australia) * Department of National Defence (Canada) * Department of Defence (Ireland) * Department of National Defense (Philipp ...
(DOD), and established the nation's first mobilization agency, the
National Security Resources Board The National Security Resources Board was a United States government agency created by the National Security Act of 1947 whose purpose was to advise the President, in times of war, on how to mobilize natural resources, manpower, and the scientific e ...
(NSRB). The Act restricted DOD to the employment of military power and placed mobilization responsibilities with the NSRB.Brinkerhoff, "The Late, Great Arsenal of Democracy," ''ORBIS.'' Spring, 1995. By 1950, however, the NSRB was dormant and DOD had recaptured authority over military
procurement Procurement is the method of discovering and agreeing to terms and purchasing goods, Service (economics), services, or other works from an external source, often with the use of a tendering or competitive bidding process. When a government agenc ...
. When
North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
invaded
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
on June 25, 1950, President
Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. A leader of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 34th vice president from January to April 1945 under Franklin ...
attempted to use the NSRB as the nation's mobilization agency. Truman quadrupled the defense budget to $50 billion, and the NSRB placed controls on prices, wages and raw materials.
Inflation In economics, inflation is an increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation corresponds to a reductio ...
soared and shortages in food, consumer goods and housing appeared. By October 1950, inflation had abated and shortages were easing. The intervention of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
in the Korean War unraveled the administration's mobilization effort. A panicked public began hoarding and the administration accelerated its rearmament plans. Inflation jumped from 1.3 percent to 7.9 percent. By December, public support for the war had fallen significantly, both Truman and his intelligence experts expected World War III to break out by spring, and
Senator A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
Joseph McCarthy Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visi ...
was using the military setbacks in Korea to attack the administration and push his own political agenda.Pierpaoli, "Truman's Other War: The Battle for the American Homefront, 1950-1953," ''Magazine of History,'' Spring 2000.Bureau of Labor Statistics, ''Consumer Price Index, All Urban Consumers-(CPI-U), U.S. City Average, All Items,'' April 17, 2007. Confronted with the failure of the NSRB, an economy on the verge of collapse, and a mobilization effort which was faltering and unable to meet the needs of accelerated production plans, President Truman declared a national emergency on December 16, 1950. Using the powers granted to him by the
Defense Production Act The Defense Production Act of 1950 () is a United States federal law enacted on September 8, 1950 in response to the start of the Korean War.Congressional Research ServiceThe Defense Production Act of 1950: History, Authorities, and Considerati ...
(which had been enacted only in September 1950), Truman created the Office of Defense Mobilization.


Structure

The Office of Defense Mobilization was established by
Executive Order In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of th ...
10193 on December 16, 1950. The agency was led by a presidentially-appointed director, who was subject to confirmation by the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
and who was a member of the NSC. ODM was part of the
Executive Office of the President The Executive Office of the President (EOP) comprises the offices and agencies that support the work of the president at the center of the executive branch of the United States federal government. The EOP consists of several offices and agenci ...
. ODM consisted of two main organizational components: The Defense Production Administration, which established production goals and supervised production operations; and the
Economic Stabilization Agency The Economic Stabilization Agency (ESA) was an agency of the United States Government that existed from 1950 to 1953. The creation of the ESA was authorized by the Defense Production Act (, 64 Stat. 798), which was signed into law by President ...
, which coordinated and supervised wage and price controls. In all, 19 mobilization agencies were eventually created within ODM to control every aspect of the American economy.


History

Truman named Charles E. Wilson, president of
General Electric General Electric Company (GE) is an American multinational conglomerate founded in 1892, and incorporated in New York state and headquartered in Boston. The company operated in sectors including healthcare, aviation, power, renewable energ ...
and a government mobilization chief in World War II, to head the ODM. Wilson became one of the most powerful people in the federal government, and the press began calling him "co-president". Wilson quickly took control of the economy. All raw materials were under the control of ODM, which rationed them to the civilian economy. Production quotas were set, and businesses ordered to supply the government with goods and services. Companies which failed to meet their production quotas were threatened with seizure by ODM. Companies found to be secretly diverting raw materials to civilian uses were severely punished through the withdrawal of lucrative government contracts, fines, and the imposition of government supervisors on-site at the workplace. Defense plants, concentrated at the time near existing manufacturing centers and where electrical power was plentiful, were dispersed across the
Southeast The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sepa ...
and
Deep South The Deep South or the Lower South is a cultural and geographic subregion in the Southern United States. The term was first used to describe the states most dependent on plantations and slavery prior to the American Civil War. Following the war ...
. The government restricted investment in new plant equipment so that only investments meeting national security needs were made. Additionally, ODM invested millions of dollars in new plant and equipment to rapidly expand production capacity. Strict price controls were placed on all goods and services, and wages were subject to federal government approval and control. Black marketeers were severely punished with fines and jail sentences.Markusen, et al., ''The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America,'' 1991. Wilson's austerity program worked: By 1951, inflation had fallen back to 1.9 percent, and the economy was no longer threatened with recession. Nevertheless, national production capacity continued to lag. In August 1951, additional controls were placed on the economy. Any manufacturer seeking raw materials had to first obtain a permit from ODM before purchasing such materials. ODM also began to control the use of steel for building and automobile production, even significantly restricting the building of public schools to divert additional steel to national defense needs.


Ban on color TV

On October 25, 1951, ODM even ordered a halt to the mass production of color
television Television, sometimes shortened to TV, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertisin ...
sets by
CBS CBS Broadcasting Inc., commonly shortened to CBS, the abbreviation of its former legal name Columbia Broadcasting System, is an American commercial broadcast television and radio network serving as the flagship property of the CBS Entertainm ...
. CBS had developed a color system which was partly mechanical and partly electronic in nature.
RCA The RCA Corporation was a major American electronics company, which was founded as the Radio Corporation of America in 1919. It was initially a patent trust owned by General Electric (GE), Westinghouse, AT&T Corporation and United Fruit Comp ...
had already developed a purely electronic color television system, and was engaged in a long and bitter legal battle with CBS before the
Federal Communications Commission The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that regulates communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable across the United States. The FCC maintains jurisdiction ...
(FCC) over which system would be adopted. Although ODM had determined that research on color TV occupied the time of critically needed scientists and technicians, the research also had defense applications and could therefore proceed. However, production of the CBS color TV sets was not essential, and was banned. The ban on mass production of the CBS color television set led the FCC to choose the RCA system by default in 1953. That system was used in the US until June 12, 2009, when it was succeeded by the ATSC set of standards.


1952 steel strike

In 1951 and 1952, ODM became embroiled in a steel strike which led to a landmark ruling by the
United States Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that involve a point o ...
. In October 1951, the
United Steel Workers of America The United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union, commonly known as the United Steelworkers (USW), is a general trade union with members across North America. Headqua ...
(USWA) began negotiating with
U.S. Steel United States Steel Corporation, more commonly known as U.S. Steel, is an American integrated steel producer headquartered in Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with production operations primarily in the United States of America and in severa ...
and five other major steelmakers for a wage increase. ODM had announced earlier in the year that there would be no increase in the price of steel. The steelmakers refused to engage in good-faith
collective bargaining Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The i ...
until ODM guaranteed that they would receive an increase in the price of steel, and their bargaining tactics were designed to force ODM to change its policy. The
union Union commonly refers to: * Trade union, an organization of workers * Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets Union may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * Union (band), an American rock group ** ''Un ...
authorized a strike to begin on January 1, 1952. But after President Truman pleaded with the union for a delay, USWA president
Philip Murray Philip Murray (May 25, 1886 – November 9, 1952) was a Scottish-born steelworker and an American labor leader. He was the first president of the Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC), the first president of the United Steelworkers of ...
agreed to postpone the strike for 60 days.Blackman, ''Presidential Seizure in Labor Disputes,'' 1967; Marcus, ''Truman and the Steel Seizure Case: The Limits of Presidential Power,'' 1977."The Government's Strike," ''Time,'' August 4, 1952. President Truman referred the wage dispute to ODM's Wage Stabilization Board (WSB). In March 1952, the WSB recommended a 16.5-cent-an-hour wage increase. The steelmakers lobbied Congress, DOD and defense manufacturers, opposing any wage increase unless there was an accompanying price increase. The pressure led Congress to threaten to overturn any WSB wage increase. Republicans demanded that the president invoke the Taft-Hartley Act and force the steelworkers back to work. But Truman, needing labor's support in the 1952 presidential campaign, refused to do so. Wilson resigned as director of ODM on March 31, 1952, in protest against Truman's support of the union. Presidential aide John R. Steelman became Acting Director of ODM. Truman was unwilling to order Steelman to implement the wage increase for fear it would ruin his wage policies, but he was also unwilling to rein in the union. With no wage increase forthcoming, the union gave notice on April 4, 1952, that it would strike at 12:01 a.m. on April 9. A few hours before the strike was to begin, Truman issued Executive Order 10340, which directed
Secretary of Commerce The United States secretary of commerce (SecCom) is the head of the United States Department of Commerce. The secretary serves as the principal advisor to the president of the United States on all matters relating to commerce. The secretary rep ...
Charles W. Sawyer to take possession of and operate steel mills throughout the country. Truman sent messages to Congress on April 9 and again on April 21 announcing his action. The steel companies, led by
Youngstown Sheet and Tube The Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company, based in Youngstown, Ohio, Youngstown, Ohio, was an American steelmaking, steel manufacturer. Officially, the company was created on November 23, 1900, when Articles of Incorporation of the Youngstown Iron S ...
, filed suit in
federal district court The United States district courts are the trial courts of the U.S. federal judiciary. There is one district court for each federal judicial district, which each cover one U.S. state or, in some cases, a portion of a state. Each district cou ...
seeking a preliminary
injunction An injunction is a legal and equitable remedy in the form of a special court order that compels a party to do or refrain from specific acts. ("The court of appeals ... has exclusive jurisdiction to enjoin, set aside, suspend (in whole or in pa ...
preventing Sawyer from seizing the steel mills. The
District Court for the District of Columbia The United States District Court for the District of Columbia (in case citations, D.D.C.) is a federal district court in the District of Columbia. It also occasionally handles (jointly with the United States District Court for the District ...
refused to grant a preliminary injunction, and scheduled a trial to be held on April 25. Despite this initial setback, the steelmakers were successful: The district court granted a permanent injunction on April 25. The government appealed to the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The Court of Appeals, sitting
en banc In law, an en banc session (; French for "in bench"; also known as ''in banc'', ''in banco'' or ''in bank'') is a session in which a case is heard before all the judges of a court (before the entire bench) rather than by one judge or a smaller ...
, stayed the permanent injunction on May 2 pending resolution of the case by the U.S. Supreme Court. A meeting between USWA and the steelmakers on May 3 nearly led to a tentative agreement on the union's terms. But during the meeting, word arrived that the Supreme Court had granted
certiorari In law, ''certiorari'' is a court process to seek judicial review of a decision of a lower court or government agency. ''Certiorari'' comes from the name of an English prerogative writ, issued by a superior court to direct that the record of ...
and accepted the case. The steelmakers backed out of the agreement, hoping that the court would rule in their favor. The Supreme Court heard oral argument for two days, May 12 and May 13. Arguing the case for the government was Solicitor General Philip B. Perlman, and representing the union was
Arthur Goldberg Arthur Joseph Goldberg (August 8, 1908January 19, 1990) was an American statesman and jurist who served as the 9th U.S. Secretary of Labor, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the 6th United States Ambassador to ...
, general counsel for the USWA and the
Congress of Industrial Organizations The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. Originally created in 1935 as a committee within the American Federation of ...
(and a future Supreme Court justice). Former Solicitor General
John W. Davis John William Davis (April 13, 1873 – March 24, 1955) was an American politician, diplomat and lawyer. He served under President Woodrow Wilson as the Solicitor General of the United States and the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom ...
argued the case for the steelmakers. On June 2, 1952, the Supreme Court handed down its decision. In '' Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer,'' 343 U.S. 579 (1952)—a landmark case on the scope of presidential powers—the Court ruled that the president lacked the authority to seize the steel mills. The Court said the President had no authority under the Constitution to seize private property during national emergency. Absent a declaration of war, the President required Congressional authorization to seize the steel mills, and this the chief executive lacked. The government returned the mills to their owners hours later. The USWA struck on June 4. The strike lasted 51 days. The supply of steel shrank to almost nothing, armament deliveries dropped by 25 percent, and ammunition and airplane assembly plants shut down. Truman began preparations to draft the steelworkers into the military under Section 18 of the
Selective Service Act of 1948 The Selective Service Act of 1948, also known as the Elston Act, was a major revision of the Articles of War of the United States enacted June 24, 1948 that established the current implementation of the Selective Service System. History The prev ...
, and public opinion began to turn against the union. These factors led Murray to agree to negotiations with the steelmakers. The strike ended on July 24, 1952. The USWA achieved a 16-cent-an-hour wage increase, and an increase in fringe benefits of about 6-cents-an-hour. The union also achieved a form of the
closed shop A pre-entry closed shop (or simply closed shop) is a form of union security agreement under which the employer agrees to hire union members only, and employees must remain members of the union at all times to remain employed. This is different fro ...
. Because of perceived favoritism toward the union, Congress stripped the Wage Stabilization Board of most of its powers in late 1952.


End of the Korean War

Henry H. Fowler Henry Hammill Fowler (September 5, 1908 January 3, 2000) was an American lawyer and politician. He served as the United States Secretary of the Treasury under President Lyndon B. Johnson. Early life and career Fowler was born in Roanoke, Virgi ...
was sworn in as director of ODM on September 8, 1952. Fowler led both ODM and its sub-agency, the
National Production Authority The National Production Authority (NPA) was an agency of the United States government which developed and promoted the production and supply of materials and facilities necessary for defense mobilization. It was part of the Department of Commerce. ...
, during his tenure as director of ODM. The Korean War ended less than a year later, on July 27, 1953. Although ODM relaxed most production, wage and price controls by the fall, many restrictions continued as the
Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
worsened. After the election of
Dwight D. Eisenhower Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower; ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, ...
as president in November 1952, Fowler resigned from ODM in early 1953. Eisenhower appointed
Arthur Flemming Arthur Sherwood Flemming (June 12, 1905September 7, 1996) was an American government official. He served as the United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare from 1958 until 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. ...
ODM director. Flemming served for most of the Eisenhower administration, overseeing the conversion of the defense industry to civilian uses. Flemming resigned on February 6, 1957. Eisenhower appointed Gordon Gray director of ODM on March 14, 1957. Gray's tenure was short-lived, however. In early 1958, pursuant to the authority granted the chief executive under the "Reorganization Act of 1949" (5 U.S.C. 901), President Eisenhower issued Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1958. The Plan, to take effect on July 1, 1958, consolidated ODM with the
Federal Civil Defense Administration The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) was organized by President Harry S. Truman on December 1, 1950, through Executive Order 10186, and became an official government agency via the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950 on 12 January 19 ...
. The successor agency was titled the Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization (ODCM) and then renamed the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization.ODCM was renamed the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization (OCDM) by an Act of Congress on August 26, 1958. Its civil defense functions were transferred to DOD by Executive Order 10952 on July 20, 1961. OCDM was retitled the Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) by an Act of Congress on September 22, 1961. OEP was retitled the
Office of Emergency Preparedness The Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, created in 1958 originally as Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, was an office of the Executive Office of the President of the United States which consolidated the functions of the existing ...
in 1968. The Office of Emergency Preparedness was retitled the
Office of Preparedness An office is a space where an Organization, organization's employees perform Business administration, administrative Work (human activity), work in order to support and realize objects and Goals, plans, action theory, goals of the organizati ...
(OP) in 1973 and transferred out of the Executive Office of the President to the
General Services Administration The General Services Administration (GSA) is an independent agency of the United States government established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA supplies products and communications for U.S. gover ...
. In 1975, OP was retitled the Federal Preparedness Agency (FPA). In 1979, FPA was subsumed under the new
Federal Emergency Management Agency The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), initially created under President Jimmy Carter by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Exec ...
(FEMA). The creation of FEMA transferred civil defense management out of DOD, reuniting them with mobilization planning for the first time since 1961.


Assessment

ODM radically changed the way the federal government approached defense procurement and mobilization. Much of the subsequent Cold War defense procurement apparatus was created by ODM, and still exists to this day. ODM also made long-lasting economic changes to America's industrial base, changes which led to unintended political and demographic consequences. ODM shifted most of the nation's defense plants away from the
Northeast The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each se ...
and
Midwest The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four Census Bureau Region, census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of ...
to the West, Southwest, and Southeast. This contributed to a 50-year
industrial decline Deindustrialization is a process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region, especially of heavy industry or manufacturing industry. There are different interpre ...
in the former two regions from which they have not yet recovered. Meanwhile, large numbers of workers moved South and West to seek employment with defense and defense-related firms. This contributed to realignment in the nation's political power structure. ODM also initiated the dispersal of defense plants to protect the nation's industrial base against enemy attack. These economic changes had
unintended consequence In the social sciences, unintended consequences (sometimes unanticipated consequences or unforeseen consequences) are outcomes of a purposeful action that are not intended or foreseen. The term was popularised in the twentieth century by Ameri ...
s which helped lead to the political ascendancy of the West and South.


Notes


References

*Blackman, Jr., John L. ''Presidential Seizure in Labor Disputes.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967. *Brinkerhoff, John R. "The Late, Great Arsenal of Democracy." ''ORBIS.'' Spring, 1995. *[ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/cpi/cpiai.txt Bureau of Labor Statistics. ''Consumer Price Index, All Urban Consumers-(CPI-U), U.S. City Average, All Items.'' Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Department of Labor. Washington, D.C.: April 17, 2007.] Accessed May 5, 2007. *"Bureaucracy in Blossom." ''Time.'' February 26, 1951. *"The Government's Strike." ''Time.'' August 4, 1952. *Gutmanis, Ivars and Starns, John F. "Whatever Happened to Defense Industrial Preparedness?" ''Joint Force Quarterly.'' Summer 1997. *"Henry Fowler." In ''Biographical Dictionary of the United States Secretaries of the Treasury, 1789-1995.'' Bernard S. Katz, C. Daniel Vencil and Daniel Vencil, eds. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1996. *Hogan, Michael J. ''A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. *"Industry Control Will Be Extended." ''United Press International.'' August 8, 1951. *Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command.'' 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. *Marcus, Maeva. ''Truman and the Steel Seizure Case: The Limits of Presidential Power.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. *Markusen, Ann; Hall, Peter; Campbell, Scott; and Deitrick, Sabina. ''The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. *"New Machine." Time. January 15, 1951. *"Overall Coordinator." Time. May 19, 1952. *Pierpaoli Jr., Paul G. ''Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War.'' Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1999. *Pierpaoli Jr., Paul G. "Truman's Other War: The Battle for the American Homefront, 1950-1953." ''Magazine of History.'' 14:3 (Spring 2000). *Relyea, Harold C. ''The Executive Office of the President: An Historical Overview.'' Washington, D.C.: Government Division, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. November 28, 2006. Code 98-606 GOV. *"TV Research Curb on Color Avoided." ''New York Times.'' October 26, 1951. *Vawter, Roderick L. ''Industrial Mobilization: The Relevant History.'' Park Forest, Ill.: University Press of the Pacific, 2002.


External links


Records of the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization. Record Group 304, 1947-62. National Archives and Records Administration.
Accessed May 14, 2007. The Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization was the successor agency to ODM. {{DEFAULTSORT:Office Of Defense Mobilization Government agencies established in 1950 Government agencies disestablished in 1958 Defunct agencies of the United States government Military logistics of the United States Korean War United States defense procurement