Roeselare (; french: Roulers, ;
West Flemish
West Flemish (''West-Vlams'' or ''West-Vloams'' or ''Vlaemsch'' (in French-Flanders), nl, West-Vlaams, french: link=no, flamand occidental) is a collection of Dutch dialects spoken in western Belgium and the neighbouring areas of France and t ...
: ''Roeseloare'') is a
Belgian
Belgian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to, Belgium
* Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent
* Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German
*Ancient Belgian language, an extinct language ...
city
A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
and
municipality
A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate.
The term ''municipality'' may also mean the go ...
in the
Flemish
Flemish (''Vlaams'') is a Low Franconian dialect cluster of the Dutch language. It is sometimes referred to as Flemish Dutch (), Belgian Dutch ( ), or Southern Dutch (). Flemish is native to Flanders, a historical region in northern Belgium; ...
province
A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''Roman province, provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire ...
of
West Flanders
)
, settlement_type = Province of Belgium
, image_flag = Flag of West Flanders.svg
, flag_size =
, image_shield = Wapen van West-Vlaanderen.svg
, shield_size =
, image_map ...
. The municipality comprises the city of Roeselare proper and the towns of Beveren,
Oekene
Roeselare (; french: Roulers, ; West Flemish: ''Roeseloare'') is a Belgian city and municipality in the Flemish province of West Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Roeselare proper and the towns of Beveren, Oekene and Rumbeke.
Th ...
and
Rumbeke
Rumbeke is a town in the Belgian municipality of Roeselare in the province of West Flanders. It is most known as the location of Rumbeke Castle
Rumbeke Castle ( nl, Kasteel van Rumbeke) is a historical building in Rumbeke in West Flanders, Bel ...
.
The name of the city is derived from two
Germanic words meaning "reed" and "open space", ''i.e.'', a marsh in a forest glade. Roeselare's minor seminary is famous for having hosted the famous
Flemish
Flemish (''Vlaams'') is a Low Franconian dialect cluster of the Dutch language. It is sometimes referred to as Flemish Dutch (), Belgian Dutch ( ), or Southern Dutch (). Flemish is native to Flanders, a historical region in northern Belgium; ...
poets
Guido Gezelle
Guido Pieter Theodorus Josephus Gezelle (1 May 1830 – 27 November 1899) was an influential writer and poet and a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium. He is famous for the use of the West Flemish dialect.
Life
Gezelle was born in Bruges in ...
,
Albrecht Rodenbach
Albertus "Albrecht" Petrus Josephus Mansuetus Ferdinandus Rodenbach (; 27 October 1856 – 23 June 1880) was a Flemish poet, and a leader in the revival of Flemish literature that occurred in the late 19th century. He is more noteworthy as a sy ...
and missionary Jesuit
Constant Lievens
Constant Lievens (11 April 1856 – 7 November 1893) was a Belgian (Flemish) Jesuit priest, missionary among the tribal peoples of Central India, particularly the Mundaris, Oraons. He is regarded as the apostle of the Chotanagpur (Jharkhand and ...
. The city is also home to the
Rodenbach Rodenbach may refer to:
* Rodenbach Brewery, a brewery from Roeselare, Belgium
Places
* Rodenbach, Hesse, in the Main-Kinzig district, Hesse, Germany
* Rodenbach, Rhineland-Palatinate, in the district of Kaiserslautern, Rhineland-Palatinate, Ger ...
brewery.
History
Origins and Middle Ages
Traces of early dwellings have been found in the area, including prehistoric flint tools,
Gallo-Roman
Gallo-Roman culture was a consequence of the Romanization of Gauls under the rule of the Roman Empire. It was characterized by the Gaulish adoption or adaptation of Roman culture, language, morals and way of life in a uniquely Gaulish context ...
wells, and a small 9th century
Frankish
Frankish may refer to:
* Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture
** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages
* Francia, a post-Roman state in France and Germany
* East Francia, the successor state to Francia in Germany ...
building. The first mention of ''Roslar'' dates from a document dated 821 or 822, whereby the former domain of the
Menapii
The Menapii were a Belgic tribe dwelling near the North Sea, around present-day Cassel, during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
Name Attestations
They are mentioned as ''Menapii'' by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Orosius (early 5th c. AD), ...
, also called the ''Rollare''
villa
A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became s ...
in later documents, was given to
Elnon Abbey
Saint-Amand Abbey (''Abbaye de Saint-Amand''), once known as Elno, Elnon or Elnone Abbey, is a former Benedictine abbey in Saint-Amand-les-Eaux, Nord, France.
History
The abbey was founded around 633-639 in what was once a great tract of uninh ...
. According to legend,
Baldwin Iron Arm, Count of Flanders, kidnapped Judith, the daughter of
Charles the Bold
Charles I (Charles Martin; german: Karl Martin; nl, Karel Maarten; 10 November 1433 – 5 January 1477), nicknamed the Bold (German: ''der Kühne''; Dutch: ''de Stoute''; french: le Téméraire), was Duke of Burgundy from 1467 to 1477.
...
in 862 in
Senlis
Senlis () is a commune in the northern French department of Oise, Hautes de France.
The monarchs of the early French dynasties lived in Senlis, attracted by the proximity of the Chantilly forest. It is known for its Gothic cathedral and other h ...
and brought her to a fortress that used to be where the present
Rumbeke Castle
Rumbeke Castle ( nl, Kasteel van Rumbeke) is a historical building in Rumbeke in West Flanders, Belgium, one of the oldest Renaissance castles in the country. Rumbeke Castle is situated at an altitude of 25 meters.
Although most of the building w ...
stands. The Roeselare area soon became part of the
County of Flanders
The County of Flanders was a historic territory in the Low Countries.
From 862 onwards, the counts of Flanders were among the original twelve peers of the Kingdom of France. For centuries, their estates around the cities of Ghent, Bruges and Ypr ...
. The rights to build fortifications and to hold a public market date from 957, during the lordship of
Baldwin III.
The city received its
charter
A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty), and that the rec ...
of freedoms in the mid-13th century, period in which it also built its first city hall and belfry. The manufacturing of cloth was then the main driver of the local economy. The few defensive walls that the city had were no match against the forces of
Maximilian of Austria, who utterly destroyed the city at the end of the 15th century. The market hall and
Saint Michael
Michael (; he, מִיכָאֵל, lit=Who is like El od, translit=Mīḵāʾēl; el, Μιχαήλ, translit=Mikhaḗl; la, Michahel; ar, ميخائيل ، مِيكَالَ ، ميكائيل, translit=Mīkāʾīl, Mīkāl, Mīkhāʾīl), also ...
church were rebuilt in the year 1500.
16th century to Waterloo
The center of Roeselare belonged throughout history to the
Fiefdom of Wijnendale and therefore fell under the responsibility of the
House of Cleves
The Duchy of Cleves (german: Herzogtum Kleve; nl, Hertogdom Kleef) was a State of the Holy Roman Empire which emerged from the medieval . It was situated in the northern Rhineland on both sides of the Lower Rhine, around its capital Cleves and ...
in the 15th and 16th century and under the Dukes of
Palatinate-Neuburg
Palatinate-Neuburg (german: Herzogtum Pfalz-Neuburg) was a territory of the Holy Roman Empire, founded in 1505 by a branch of the House of Wittelsbach. Its capital was Neuburg an der Donau. Its area was about 2,750 km², with a population of ...
in the 17th and 18th century.
The 16th century proved to be disastrous for the city as the Spanish rulers ruthlessly repressed any desire for autonomy in the
Low Countries
The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pays-Bas, lb, déi Niddereg Lännereien) and historically called the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlanden), Flanders, or Belgica, is a coastal lowland region in N ...
, both political and religious.
Iconoclasts stormed the city in 1566 and destroyed most of the sacred art. The
Eighty Years' War
The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt ( nl, Nederlandse Opstand) ( c.1566/1568–1648) was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government. The causes of the war included the Refo ...
that followed put an end to the wool supply from England, which in turn resulted in the disappearance of the cloth industry in Roeselare. Starting with the reigns of Archdukes
Albert
Albert may refer to:
Companies
* Albert (supermarket), a supermarket chain in the Czech Republic
* Albert Heijn, a supermarket chain in the Netherlands
* Albert Market, a street market in The Gambia
* Albert Productions, a record label
* Alber ...
and
Isabella
Isabella may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Isabella (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters
* Isabella (surname), including a list of people
Places
United States
* Isabella, Alabama, an unincorpor ...
, the beginning of the 17th century was a lot kinder to Roeselare. New churches and religious houses were built and old ones repaired. New schools also appeared in the city and the cloth industry found a new life. The second half of the century, however, was marked by the wars of
Louis XIV
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Vers ...
and Marshal
Turenne
Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne (11 September 161127 July 1675), commonly known as Turenne , was a French general and one of only six Marshals to have been promoted Marshal General of France. The most illustrious member of the ...
against the Spanish, with further plundering and misery. The
Treaty of Nijmegen
The Treaties of Peace of Nijmegen ('; german: Friede von Nimwegen) were a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Nijmegen between August 1678 and October 1679. The treaties ended various interconnected wars among France, the Dutch Republi ...
in 1678 made Roeselare a border city, a situation that encouraged smuggling rather than regular economic development.
The 18th century was a generally prosperous period that saw the construction of the current city hall. In 1794, the area was the scene of a French victory over the
Austrians
, pop = 8–8.5 million
, regions = 7,427,759
, region1 =
, pop1 = 684,184
, ref1 =
, region2 =
, pop2 = 345,620
, ref2 =
, region3 =
, pop3 = 197,990
, ref3 ...
. The victors imposed deep reforms on the country, such as a new legal system (the
Napoleonic Code) and the curtailment of religious freedoms, which lasted until the
Concordat of 1802
The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII, signed on 15 July 1801 in Paris. It remained in effect until 1905, except in Alsace-Lorraine, where it remains in force. It sought national reconciliation b ...
between
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
and
Pope Pius VII
Pope Pius VII ( it, Pio VII; born Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti; 14 August 1742 – 20 August 1823), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 14 March 1800 to his death in August 1823. Chiaramonti was also a m ...
.
Modern era
Several members of the Rodenbach family of Roeselare took part in the events leading to
Belgian Independence
The Belgian Revolution (, ) was the conflict which led to the secession of the southern provinces (mainly the former Southern Netherlands) from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Belgium.
T ...
in 1830. Other members of the family became soldiers or diplomats. Pedro and Alexander founded the brewery which is still in operation today. The general economy, however, did not fare very well as
mechanization
Mechanization is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. In an early engineering text a machine is defined as follows:
In some fields, mechanization includes the ...
displaced many small artisans. The advent of the railway and the digging of a canal linking the city to the river
Lys in the 1860s were beneficial. World War I stopped the economic boom in its tracks as the city became a large camp ground for the German troops fighting on the front lines in neighbouring
Diksmuide
(; french: Dixmude, ; vls, Diksmude) is a Belgian city and municipality in the Flemish province of West Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of proper and the former communes of Beerst, Esen, Kaaskerke, Keiem, Lampernisse, Leke, N ...
. By the end of the war, two thirds of the city was destroyed due to British bombing.
On 27 and 28 May 1940, the Belgian army lost its last stand here against the advancing
Wehrmacht
The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmacht''" replaced the previous ...
. This was followed by four years of German occupation, although without too much destruction. The city today is a regional center that provides commercial and media services, as well as a variety of occupations in the food industry, to the surrounding area.
Sights
*The
rococo
Rococo (, also ), less commonly Roccoco or Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and theatrical style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpted moulding, ...
city hall on the central market square dates from the 18th century. The city hall, market hall, and
belfry are classified by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
as a
World Heritage Site
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
(part of
Belfries of Belgium and France
The Belfries of Belgium and France are a group of 56 historical buildings designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, in recognition of the civic (rather than church) belfries serving as an architectural manifestation of emerging civic indep ...
).
*The
Rodenbach Rodenbach may refer to:
* Rodenbach Brewery, a brewery from Roeselare, Belgium
Places
* Rodenbach, Hesse, in the Main-Kinzig district, Hesse, Germany
* Rodenbach, Rhineland-Palatinate, in the district of Kaiserslautern, Rhineland-Palatinate, Ger ...
brewery was founded in 1821. The tour of the facilities includes an explanation of the process used to make this one-of-a-kind beer style.
*The
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
-style
Rumbeke Castle
Rumbeke Castle ( nl, Kasteel van Rumbeke) is a historical building in Rumbeke in West Flanders, Belgium, one of the oldest Renaissance castles in the country. Rumbeke Castle is situated at an altitude of 25 meters.
Although most of the building w ...
dates from 1538 and is located within the ''Sterrebos'' forest. Now, it houses the company ''Busworld''. The nearby ''Kazandmolen'' is the only one of the area's thirteen windmills to have survived until today.
*A unique
bicycle
A bicycle, also called a pedal cycle, bike or cycle, is a human-powered or motor-powered assisted, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A is called a cyclist, or bicyclist.
Bic ...
museum can also be visited in Roeselare.
*The
Canal Roeselare-Leie
Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface flow und ...
that was completed in 1872, provides not only an economic advantage but creates great cycling and walking opportunities also.
*The
Roeselare railway station is an important place in the city with a car-free square and a busstation.
*The
Eaststreet (Ooststraat) is an important shopping-street.
Kasteel rumbeke.jpg, Rumbeke Castle near Roeselare
Parochiekerk Sint-Amands, Roeselare (DSCF9989).jpg, Sint-Amand church
Folklore
Roeselare houses a whole family of giant puppets. The head of the family, Rolarius – who is also the alleged founder of the city – his wife Carlotta and son Opsinjoorke, as well as several other relatives, appear at festivities and carnivals, dancing to the beat of the giants' song.
Roeselare also houses some kind of folklore around the character named Peegie, he's a slick merchant, and is in a way based on the real character of the town as a merchant town in his early days.
Sports
Roeselare was the hometown of soccer team
KSV Roeselare who played in the
Belgian Second Division
The Belgian Second Division (known as the Proximus League for sponsorship reasons) was the second-highest division in the Belgian football league system, one level below the Belgian Pro League. It was founded by the Royal Belgian Football Associa ...
until their bankruptcy in 2020.
The volleyteam
Knack Randstad Roeselare
Knack Roeselare is a Belgian professional men's volleyball club based in Roeselare. They compete in the Euro Millions Volley League and the CEV Champions League.
Honours Domestic
* Belgian Championship
:Winners (13): 1988–89, 1999–2000, 20 ...
who plays the
CEV Champions League
The CEV Champions League is the top official competition for men's volleyball clubs from the whole of Europe. The competition is organised every year by the European Volleyball Confederation.
Formula (2018–19 to present) Qualification
A tot ...
.
Formula E
Formula E, officially the ABB FIA Formula E World Championship, is a single-seater motorsport championship for electric cars. The series was conceived in 2011 in Paris by FIA president Jean Todt and Spanish businessman Alejandro Agag, who is ...
driver
Stoffel Vandoorne
Stoffel Vandoorne (born 26 March 1992) is a Belgian professional racing driver who is currently racing for Dragon Racing in Formula E. He had previously competed in Formula One for McLaren from 2016 to 2018. He is currently a test driver of M ...
also lives in Roeselare.
Twin cities
Roeselare is twinned with the town of
Clonmel
Clonmel () is the county town and largest settlement of County Tipperary, Republic of Ireland, Ireland. The town is noted in Irish history for its resistance to the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Cromwellian army which sacked the towns of Dro ...
in
Co. Tipperary
County Tipperary ( ga, Contae Thiobraid Árann) is a Counties of Ireland, county in Republic of Ireland, Ireland. It is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Munster and the Southern Region, Ireland, Southern Region. The county is named afte ...
,
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
.
Famous inhabitants
![Rodenbach-Albrecht](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Rodenbach-Albrecht.jpg)
*
Paul Bulcke
Paul Bulcke (born 8 September 1954) is a Belgian businessman who is the chairman and former CEO of Nestlé.
Early life
He graduated as a commercial engineer at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and is an alumnus of the Vlerick Leuven Gent Man ...
(born 1954), businessman, former CEO of
Nestlé
Nestlé S.A. (; ; ) is a Switzerland, Swiss multinational food and drink processing conglomerate corporation headquartered in Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. It is the largest publicly held food company in the world, measured by revenue and other me ...
*
Marthe Cnockaert
Marthe Mathilde Cnockaert (28 October 1892 – 8 January 1966), later Marthe McKenna, was a Belgian spy for the United Kingdom and its allies during the First World War. She later became a novelist, and is credited with writing over a dozen spy ...
(1892–1966),
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
nurse and spy for the British (from the village of
Westrozebeke
Westrozebeke is a village in the Belgian province of West Flanders. It is part of the municipality of Staden. It is located 6 miles (10 km) west of Roeselare and 9.5 miles (15 km) north-east of Ypres. It's a typical agricultural village ...
but was resident in Roeselare during the war)
*
Frédérik Deburghgraeve
Frédérik Edouard Robert "Fred" Deburghgraeve (born 1 June 1973 in Roeselare) is a former Belgium, Belgian swimmer who won the gold medal in the 100 m breaststroke and set a world record during the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. H ...
(born 1973), swimmer and Olympic gold medal winner
*
Rita Demeester (1946–1993), poet and writer
*
Guido Gezelle
Guido Pieter Theodorus Josephus Gezelle (1 May 1830 – 27 November 1899) was an influential writer and poet and a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium. He is famous for the use of the West Flemish dialect.
Life
Gezelle was born in Bruges in ...
(1830–1899), poet
*
Charles Goddeeris, builder and father of Flemish Detroit community
*
Jan Himpe
Jan, JaN or JAN may refer to:
Acronyms
* Jackson, Mississippi (Amtrak station), US, Amtrak station code JAN
* Jackson-Evers International Airport, Mississippi, US, IATA code
* Jabhat al-Nusra (JaN), a Syrian militant group
* Japanese Article Numb ...
(1921–2007), musician and composer famous for the local evergreen "''We zijn van 't oude Roeselare''"
*
James Lahousse
James Lahousse (born 9 November 1982) is a retired Belgian professional footballer.
Career
Lahousse started his career with Roeselare in the Belgian Second Division, playing his first match during the 2001-02 season. Lahousse was a key player in ...
(born 1982), retired Belgian professional footballer
*
Jean-Pierre Monseré
Jean-Pierre "Jempi" Monseré (8 September 1948 – 15 March 1971) was a Belgian road racing cyclist who died while champion of the world.
Career
Early life
As a child, the energetic Monseré excelled in different sports like football and ...
(1948–1971), cyclist and 1970 World Champion
*
Albrecht Rodenbach
Albertus "Albrecht" Petrus Josephus Mansuetus Ferdinandus Rodenbach (; 27 October 1856 – 23 June 1880) was a Flemish poet, and a leader in the revival of Flemish literature that occurred in the late 19th century. He is more noteworthy as a sy ...
(1856–1880), poet
*
Patrick Sercu
Patrick Sercu (27 June 1944 – 19 April 2019) was a Belgian cyclist who was active on the road and track between 1961 and 1983. On track, he won the gold medal in the 1 km time trial at the 1964 Summer Olympics, as well as three world titl ...
(1944–2019), cyclist and Olympic gold medal winner
*
Stoffel Vandoorne
Stoffel Vandoorne (born 26 March 1992) is a Belgian professional racing driver who is currently racing for Dragon Racing in Formula E. He had previously competed in Formula One for McLaren from 2016 to 2018. He is currently a test driver of M ...
(born 1992), Former
Formula 1
Formula One (also known as Formula 1 or F1) is the highest class of international racing for open-wheel single-seater formula racing cars sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). The World Drivers' Championship, ...
driver for
McLaren
McLaren Racing Limited is a British motor racing team based at the McLaren Technology Centre in Woking, Surrey, England. McLaren is best known as a Formula One constructor, the second oldest active team, and the second most successful Formul ...
and
2021–22 Formula E World Championship
The 2021–22 ABB FIA Formula E World Championship is the eighth season of the FIA Formula E championship, a motor racing championship for electrically powered vehicles recognised by motorsport's governing body, the Fédération Internation ...
winner
*
Adrian Willaert
Adrian Willaert ( – 7 December 1562) was a Flemish composer of High Renaissance music. Mainly active in Italy, he was the founder of the Venetian School. He was one of the most representative members of the generation of northern composers ...
(c.1490–1562), Renaissance-era composer (birth in Roeselare uncertain)
References
External links
*
Official site of the Rodenbach brewery
*Website o
WieMu, the national cycling museum
{{Authority control
Municipalities of West Flanders
World Heritage Sites in Belgium