Nostoc ellipsosporum
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''Nostoc'', also known as star jelly, troll’s butter, spit of moon, fallen star, witch's butter (not to be confused with the fungi commonly known as
witches' butter Witches' butter (or Witch's butter) may refer to: * '' Exidia nigricans'', a black, gelatinous fungus * '' Exidia glandulosa'', a black, gelatinous fungus * '' Tremella mesenterica'', a yellow, gelatinous fungus * ''Dacrymyces'', a jelly fungus oft ...
), and witch’s jelly, is the most common genus of cyanobacteria found in various environments that may form
colonies In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state'' ...
composed of filaments of moniliform cells in a gelatinous sheath of polysaccharides. ''Nostoc'' is a genus of photosynthetic, Gram-negative cyanobacteria that can be found in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. It may also grow
symbiotically Symbiosis (from Greek , , "living together", from , , "together", and , bíōsis, "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasit ...
within the tissues of
plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclu ...
s, providing
nitrogen Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at se ...
to its host through the action of terminally differentiated cells known as
heterocysts Heterocysts or heterocytes are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed during nitrogen starvation by some filamentous cyanobacteria, such as '' Nostoc punctiforme'', ''Cylindrospermum stagnale'', and ''Anabaena sphaerica''. They fix nitrogen f ...
. ''Nostoc'' is a genus that includes many species that are diverse in morphology, habitat distribution, and ecological function. ''Nostoc'' can be found in
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty. Common types of dirt include: * Debri ...
, on moist rocks, at the bottom of lakes and springs, and rarely in marine habitats. It may also be found in terrestrial temperate, desert, tropical, or polar environments. The name ''Nostoc'' was coined by Paracelsus and is a combination of the English ''nost''ril and German ''Nasenloch'' "nose hole, nostril", likely due to appearance of many species colonies being similar to nasal mucus. When it is on the ground, a ''Nostoc'' colony is ordinarily not seen, but after a rain, it swells up into a conspicuous, jellylike mass, which was once thought to have fallen from the sky, hence the popular names, like star jelly, troll’s butter, and witch's butter mentioned above.


Morphology

''Nostoc'' are a genus of photosynthetic,
Gram-negative Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a thin peptidoglycan cell wa ...
photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Many species of ''Nostoc'' possess an outer layer and extensive inner matrix of
polysaccharides Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with w ...
, giving them their "jelly-like" or gelatinous appearance, and also help to protect them from their environment and can assist in the absorption of moisture. This allows them to survive stressful conditions such as fluctuating temperatures, drought, salt stress, desiccation, UV radiation, and infection by pathogens. Some species within the genus also have
nitrogen-fixing Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process by which molecular nitrogen (), with a strong triple covalent bond, in the air is converted into ammonia () or related nitrogenous compounds, typically in soil or aquatic systems but also in industry. Atm ...
heterocyst Heterocysts or heterocytes are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed during nitrogen starvation by some filamentous cyanobacteria, such as '' Nostoc punctiforme'', ''Cylindrospermum stagnale'', and ''Anabaena sphaerica''. They fix nitrogen fr ...
filaments enclosed in this membrane. Many members of the ''Nostoc'' genus form colonies. These colonies can reach several centimeters in diameter. These colonies consist of mats or gelatinous masses created by aggregated trichomes that can appear in a range of colors (depending on the species) such as brown, yellow, or green. Additionally, some species of ''Nostoc'' are able to enter quiescent stages, further aiding in their survival of adverse conditions, and allowing them to resume metabolism when re-hydrated.


Ecology


Habitat and distribution

''Nostoc'' can be found in a variety of environments, both terrestrial and aquatic, depending on the species. Their polysaccharide outer layer and matrix allows them to survive and thrive in a variety of conditions and habits ranging from deserts, semideserts, grasslands, polar, and tropical regions depending on the particular species of ''Nostoc''. In terms of aquatic environments, ''Nostoc'' has been documented to be naturally found in marine water, fresh water, as well as brackish water.


Interactions with other organisms

Depending on the species, ''Nostoc'' may either be free-living in their environment, or they may form relationships with the other organisms in their environment, such as plants, fungi, or other bacteria. Because ''Nostoc'' is able to form colonies on the surface or bare minerals, it is able to provide a more stable environment for higher vegetation in its environment. Some species of ''Nostoc'' also form relationships with plants that lack vascular tissue such as Bryophytes because of their ability to fix nitrogen. ''Nostoc'' has also been found to form symbiotic associations and other relationships with other bacteria in their environment. Some species of ''Nostoc'' that form colonies in freshwater environments provide a habitat to other freshwater bacteria. Additionally, some species like '' N. commune'' and '' N. flageliforme'' form relationships with heterotrophic bacteria and actinobacteria present in their environments, likely due to the fact that they are a potential significant player in
nitrogen cycling The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biolog ...
in aquatic ecosystems.


Usage


Biotechnological usage

''Nostoc'' has been documented to produce many compounds of interest, including those that are antiviral, antitumor, antifungal, and antibacterial. In addition to the suggested pharmaceutical usage, ''Nostoc'' has also been a suggested
biofertilizer A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which, when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of prim ...
, and source of
fatty acids In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated and unsaturated compounds#Organic chemistry, saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an B ...
for biofuel production.


Environmental usage

''Nostoc'' has the unique ability to survive and colonize new and bare mineral surfaces by moss and other higher plants, which then allows for more organic soil and stable vegetation. It has been suggested that ''Nostoc'' be used in environments of retreating glaciers in order to establish new and more stable presences of vegetation on newly exposed mineral surfaces.


Historical and culinary usage

''Nostoc'' has historically been utilized as a healthy food and traditional medicine, most notably in Asia Historically, the species '' N. flagelliforme'' and '' N. commune'' have been consumed in China, where it was used to survive famines and has been used as an ingredient in Chinese medicine since the
Eastern Jin Dynasty Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...
. Although, ''Nostoc'' has had documented culinary usage in India, Indonesia, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador as well. ''Nostoc'' is also highly nutritious, containing protein and
vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
, as well as all
essential amino acid An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized from scratch by the organism fast enough to supply its demand, and must therefore come from the diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life form ...
s. It has been suggested to be anti-inflammatory and an antioxidant as well. Because of this, ''Nostoc'' has also been considered to be a strong candidate for extraterrestrial agriculture.


Human impact and management

Because of human foot traffic, and contaminated gardening tools and irrigation systems, ''Nostoc'' is usually found outside of its natural habitat in plant nurseries and greenhouses. A number of different control methods can be effective in removing unwanted ''Nostoc'' from these environments, including implementing increased drainage in these facilities, physical removal of ''Nostoc'', and flame weeders or solarization.


Taxonomy

''Nostoc'' is a member of the family
Nostocaceae The Nostocaceae are a family of cyanobacteria that forms filament-shaped colonies enclosed in mucus or a gelatinous sheath. Some genera in this family are found primarily in fresh water (such as ''Nostoc''), while others are found primarily in ...
of the order
Nostocales The Nostocales are an order of cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria (), also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of gram-negative bacteria that obtain energy via photosynthesis. The name ''cyanobacteria'' refers to their color (), which similarly f ...
. Species include (see collapsed list on the right for full listing) : *'' Nostoc azollae'' *'' Nostoc caeruleum'' Lyngbye ex Bornet et Flahault *''
Nostoc carneum ''Nostoc'', also known as star jelly, troll’s butter, spit of moon, fallen star, witch's butter (not to be confused with the fungi commonly known as witches' butter), and witch’s jelly, is the most common genus of cyanobacteria found in var ...
'' *''
Nostoc comminutum ''Nostoc'', also known as star jelly, troll’s butter, spit of moon, fallen star, witch's butter (not to be confused with the fungi commonly known as witches' butter), and witch’s jelly, is the most common genus of cyanobacteria found in var ...
'' *''
Nostoc commune ''Nostoc commune'' is a species of cyanobacterium in the family Nostocaceae. Common names include star jelly, witch's butter, mare's eggs, fah-tsai and facai. It is the type species of the genus '' Nostoc'' and is cosmopolitan in distribution. ...
'' (Linnaeus) Vaucher ex Bornet et Flahault ( Chinese: ''Koxianmi'') *'' Nostoc ellipsosporum'' *'' Nostoc flagelliforme'' *''
Nostoc linckia ''Nostoc'', also known as star jelly, troll’s butter, spit of moon, fallen star, witch's butter (not to be confused with the fungi commonly known as witches' butter), and witch’s jelly, is the most common genus of cyanobacteria found in var ...
'' *'' Nostoc longstaffi'' *'' Nostoc microscopicum'' (Carmichael ex Harvey) Bornet et Flahault *'' Nostoc muscorum'' *'' Nostoc paludosum'' *''
Nostoc pruniforme ''Nostoc pruniforme'' (Mare's eggs) are a species of cyanobacterium. These freshwater bacteria grow in colonies In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, col ...
'' (Linnaeus) C. A. Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault *''
Nostoc punctiforme ''Nostoc punctiforme'' is a species of filamentous cyanobacterium. Under non-limiting nutritional environmental conditions, its filaments are composed of photosynthetic vegetative cells; upon nutrient limitation, some of these cells undergo dif ...
'' *'' Nostoc sphaericum'' *'' Nostoc sphaeroides'' *''
Nostoc spongiaeforme ''Nostoc'', also known as star jelly, troll’s butter, spit of moon, fallen star, witch's butter (not to be confused with the fungi commonly known as witches' butter), and witch’s jelly, is the most common genus of cyanobacteria found in vario ...
'' *'' Nostoc thermotolerans'' *'' Nostoc verrucosum'' Vaucher ex Bornet et Flahault


References


Citations


General sources

* * *Davidson, Alan. Oxford Companion to Food (1999), "Nostoc".


External links

* ''Nostoc'' spec. in lichens * {{Taxonbar, from=Q311257 Nostocaceae Cyanobacteria genera